Abstract
Leprosy (synonyms: Hansen’s disease, Hanseniasis, Hansenosis, Lepra) (from the Latin word lepra, which means “scaly” and the Greek lepo meaning “to scale”) is a chronic infective granulomatous disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium leprae, an intracytoplasmic parasite of Schwann cells and macrophages. It mainly affects the peripheral nervous system, skin, and other tissues such as the reticuloendothelial system, mucous membranes, the eyes, testes, bones and joints, muscles, and adrenal glands [1–10]. Among communicable diseases, leprosy is one of the leading causes of permanent physical disability worldwide. The disease and resulting visible deformities contribute to the intense social stigma associated with this affliction, that provokes discrimination and avoidance of any contact with patients and their families. Pathogenic transmission occurs via person-to-person contact, especially through the nasorespiratory route, although there is some possibility of transplacental infection [11]. Recently, zoonotic infections have also been reported [12, 13].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Leiker D, Nunzi E (1985) Leprosy in the light skin: an illustrated manual. O.C.S.I., AIFO, Bologna
Bryceson A, Pfaltzgraff RE (1990) Leprosy, 3rd edn. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh
Canizares O, Harman R, Adriaans B (1992) Leprosy. In: Canizares O, Harman R (eds) Clinical tropical dermatology, 2nd edn. Blackwekk Scientific, Boston, p 165
Hastings RC (ed) (1985) Leprosy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh
Britton W. Leprosy. In: Armstrong D, Cohen J (eds) Infectious diseases. London, Mosby, 1999:16.1.
Ramos-e-Silva M, Riberio de Castro MC (2003) Mycobacterial infections. In: Bolognia JL, Jorizzo JL, Rapini RP (eds) Dermatology. Mosby, London, p 1145
Leprosy Group, WHO (2003) Leprosy. In: Cook GC, Zumla A (eds) Manson’s tropical diseases, 21st edn. WB Saundersm, London, p 1065
Lockwood DNJ (2010) Leprosy. In: Burns T, Breathnach S, Cox N et al (eds) Rook’s textbook of dermatology, 8th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, p 32.1
Lee DJ, Rea TH, Modlin RL (2012) Leprosy. In: Goldsmith LA, Katz SI, Gilchrest BA et al (eds) Fitzpatrick’s dermatology in general medicine, 8th edn. McGrow Hill, New York, p 2253
Nunzi E, Fiallo P, Clapasson A (2013) Leprosy. In: Giannetti A, Del Forno C (eds) Textbook of dermatology & sexually transmitted diseases. Piccin Nuova Libraria S.P.A., Padova, p 515
Brubaker ML, Meyers WM, Bourland J (1985) Leprosy in children one year of age and under. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 53:517
Meyers WM (1992) Leprosy. Clin Dermatol 10:73
Truman RW, Singh P, Sharma R et al (2011) Probable zoonotic leprosy in the southern United States. N Engl J Med 364:1626
Sugita Y (1995) Leprosy. Clin Dermatol 13:235
Ramos-e-Silva M, PFB R (2001) Leprosy. Recognition and treatment. Am J Clin Dermatol 2:203
Browne SG (1989) The history of leprosy. In: Hasting RC (ed) Leprosy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, p 1
Robbins G, Tripathy VM, Misra VN et al (2009) Ancient skeletal evidence for leprosy in India (2000 B.C.) PLoS One 4:e5669
Nunzi E, Leiker L (1995) Manuale di leprologia, 2nd edn. O.C.S.I.,AIFO, Bologna
Grzybowski A, Nita M (2016) Leprosy in the Bible. Clin Dermatol 34:3
Goldman L, Moraites RS, Kitzmiller KW (1966) White spots in biblical times. Arch Dermatol 93:744
Baillie RA, Baillie EE, Anderson SC (1982) Biblical leprosy as compared to present-day leprosy. South Med J 75:855
Freilich AR (1982) Tzaraat-“biblical leprosy”. J Am Acad Dermatol 6:131
Davies ML, Davies TA (1989) Biblical leprosy: a comedy of errors. J R Soc Med 82:622
Kaplan DL (1993) Biblical leprosy: an anachronism whose time has come. J Am Acad Dermatol 28:507
Appelboom T, Cogan E, Klastersky J (2007) Job of the Bible: leprosy or scabies? Mt Sinai J Med 74:36
Nunzi E, Clapasson A (2004) La lebbra oggi. Bologna, AIFO
Gonzalez Prendes MA (1964) Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen (1841–1912). Lepr Rev 35:127
Hansen GA (1872) Om vort Kjendskab til Spedalskhedens Aarsager og om vore Forholdsregler mod Sygdommen. Nor Mag Laegevidenskaben 2:1
Grzybowski A, Sak J, Pawlikowski J et al (2013) Gerhard Henrik Armauer Hansen (1841–1912)-the 100th anniversary of the death of the discoverer of Mycobacterium leprae. Clin Dermatol 31:653
Volgesang TM (1963) A serious sentence passed against the discoverer of the leprosy bacillus (Gerhard Armauer Hansen), in 1880. Med Hist 7:182
Vogelsang TM (1964) Hansen’s first observation and publication concerning the bacillus of leprosy. Int J Lepr 32:330
Mitsuda K (1953) On the value of a skin reaction to a suspicious of leprous nodules. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 21:347
Faget GH, Johansen FA, RossH (1942) Sulfanilamide in the treatment of leprosy. Public Health Rep 57:1892
Shepard CC (1960) Acid-fast bacilli in nasal excretions in leprosy, and results of inoculation of mice. Am J Hyg 71:147
Ridley DS, Jopling WH (1966) Classification of leprosy according to immunity. A five-group system. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 34:255
Kirchheimer WF, Storrs EE (1971) Attempts to establish the armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus Linn.) as a model for the study of leprosy. I. Report of lepromatoid leprosy in an experimentally infected armadillo. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:693
Cole ST, Eiglemeier K, Parkhill J et al (2001) Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus. Nature 409:1007
Grzybowski A, Sak J, Korecki K (2016) Misericordia and leprosy in the 20th century. Clin Dermatol 34:11
World Health Organization (2015) Global leprosy update, 2014: need for early case detection. Wkly Epidemiol Res 90:461
Schreuder PAM, Noto S, Richardus JH (2016) Epidemiologic trends of leprosy for the 21st century. Clin Dermatol 34:24
Declercq E (2009) Leprosy global statistics: beware of traps. Lepr Rev 80:350
Richardus JH, Oskam L (2015) Protecting people against leprosy: chemoprophylaxis and immunoprophylaxis. Clin Dermatol 33:19
Blok DJ, De Vlas SJ, Richardus JH (2015) Global elimination of leprosy by 2020: are we on track? Parasit Vectors 8:548
Grzybowski A, Sak J, Pawlikowski J et al (2016) Leprosy: social implications from antiquity to the present. Clin Dermatol 34:8
Grzybowski A, Sak J, Suchodolska E et al (2015) Lepra: various etiologies from miasma to bacteriology and genetics. Clin Dermatol 33:3
Glickman FS (1986) Lepra, psora, psoriasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 14:863
GER L (ed) (1978) Hippocratic writings. Penguin Books, London
Wales AE (1963) Sir Jonathan Hutchinson, 1828–1913. Br J Vener Dis 39:67
Hutchinson J (1906) On leprosy and fish-eating. A statement of facts and explanations. Archibald Constable & Co., Ld, London
Fite GL, Wade HW (1955) The contribution of Neisser to the establishment of the Hansen bacillus as the etiologic agent of leprosy and the so-called Hansen-Neisser controversy. Int J Lepr 23:418
Vogelsang TM (1963) The Hansen-Neisser controversy, 1879–1880. Int J Lepr 31:74
Jensen RW, Rivest J, Li W et al (2011) DNA fingerprinting of Mycobacterium leprae strains using variable number tandem repeat (VNTR)—fragment length analysis (FLA). J Vis Exp 53:e3104
Turankar RP, Lavania M, Singh M et al (2012) Dynamics of Mycobacterium leprae transmission in environmental context: deciphering the role of environment as a potential reservoir. Infect Genet Evol 12:121
Monot M, Honoré N, Garnier T et al (2005) On the origin of leprosy. Science 308:1040
Fine PEM (1982) Leprosy: the epidemiology of a slow bacterium. Epidemiol Rev 4:161
Bakker MI, Hatta M, Kwenang A et al (2002) Epidemiology of leprosy among five isolated islands in the Flores Sea Indonesia. Tropical Med Int Health 7:780
Meima A, Gupte MD, van Oortmarssen GJ et al (1999) SIMLEP: a simulation model for leprosy transmission and control. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 67:215
van Beers SM, Hatta M, Klatser PR (1999) Patient contact is the major determinant in incident leprosy: implications for future control. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 67:119
Fine PEM, Sterne JA, Pönnighaus JM et al (1997) Household and dwelling contact as risk factors for leprosy in Northern Malawi. Am J Epidemiol 146:91
van Beers SM, Izumi S, Madjid B et al (1994) An epidemiological study of leprosy infection by serology and polymerase chain reaction. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 62:1
Bakker MI, Hatta M, Kwenang A et al (2004) Population survey to determine risk factors for Mycobacterium leprae transmission and infection. Int J Epidemiol 33:1329
Moet FJ, Pahan D, Schuring RP et al (2006) Physical distance, genetic relationship, age, and leprosy classification are independent risk factors for leprosy in contacts of patients with leprosy. J Infect Dis 193:346
Merle CS, Cunha SS, Rodrigues LC (2010) BCG vaccination and leprosy protection: review of current evidence and status of BCG in leprosy control. Expert Rev Vaccines 9:209
Fine PEM, Sterne JA, Pönnighaus JM et al (1994) Delayed-type hypersensitivity, mycobacterial vaccines and protective immunity. Lancet 344:1245
Bray GW (1930) The story of leprosy at Nauru. Proc R Soc Med 23:1370
Leiker DL (1971) Some aspects of the epidemiology of leprosy. On the relationship of leprosy and other mycobacterial diseases. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:610
Feenstra SG, Nahar Q, Pahan D et al (2011) Recent food shortage is associated with leprosy disease in Bangladesh: a case-control study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5:e1029
Ustianowski AP, Lawn SD, Lockwood DN (2006) Interactions between HIV infection and leprosy: a paradox. Lancet Infect Dis 6:350
Massone C, Talhari C, Ribeiro-Rodrigues R et al (2011) Leprosy and HIV coinfection: a critical approach. Expert Rev Anti-Infect Ther 9:701
Bratschi MW, Steinmann P, Wickenden A et al (2015) Current knowledge on Mycobacterium leprae transmission: a systematic literature review. Lepr Rev 86:142
Singh G, Tutakne MA, Tiwari VD et al (1985) Inoculation leprosy developing after tattooing--a case report. Indian J Lepr 57:887
Ghorpade A (2002) Inoculation (tattoo) leprosy: a report of 31 cases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 16:494
Singh RK (2009) Tattoos and paucibacillary leprosy. Travel Med Infect Dis 7:325
Brandsma JW, Yoder L, MacDonald M (2005) Leprosy acquired by inoculation from a knee injury. Lepr Rev 76:175
Ghorpade A (2013) Post traumatic borderline tuberculoid leprosy over knee in an Indian male. Lepr Rev 84:248
Ghorpade A (2009) Post-traumatic inoculation tuberculoid leprosy after injury with a glass bangle. Lepr Rev 80:215
Sharma P, Bhardwaj M, Kar HK (2009) Inoculation leprosy and HIV co-infection: a rare case with nerve involvement preceding development of skin patch and type 1 reaction as immune reconstitution syndrome following antiretroviral therapy. Indian J Lepr 81:75
Marchoux PE (1934) Un cas d’inoculation accidentelle du bacille de Hansen en pays non lepreux. Int J Lepr 2:1
Job CK, Harris EB, Allen JL et al (1986) Thorns in armadillo ears and noses and their role in the transmission of leprosy. Arch Pathol Lab Med 110:1025
Sehgal VN, Rege VL, Vadiraj SN (1970) Inoculation leprosy subsequent to small-pox vaccination. Dermatologica 141:393
Ghorpade A (2007) Inoculation indeterminate leprosy localised to a smallpox vaccination scar. Lepr Rev 78:398
Bechelli LM, Garbajosa PG, Gyi MM et al (1973) Site of early skin lesions in children with leprosy. Bull World Health Organ 48:107
Kapur TR, Rao SM (1979) Post-traumatic tuberculoid leprosy. A case report. Lepr India 51:112
Gupta CM, Tutakne MA, Tiwari VD et al (1984) Inoculation leprosy subsequent to dog bite. A case report. Indian J Lepr 56:919
Kerr-Pontes LR, Barreto ML, Evangelista CM et al (2006) Socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioural risk factors for leprosy in Northeast Brazil: results of a case-control study. Int J Epidemiol 35:994
Kazda J, Irgens LM, Kolk AH (1990) Acid-fast bacilli found in sphagnum vegetation of coastal Norway containing Mycobacterium leprae-specific phenolic glycolipid-I. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 58:353
Matsuoka M, Izumi S, Budiawan T et al (1999) Mycobacterium leprae DNA in daily using water as a possible source of leprosy infection. Indian J Lepr 71:61
Truman R, Fine PEM (2010) “Environmental” sources of Mycobacterium leprae: issues and evidence. Lepr Rev 81:89
Kazda J, Ganapati R, Revankar C et al (1986) Isolation of environment-derived Mycobacterium leprae from soil in Bombay. Lepr Rev 57(Suppl 3):201
Blake LA, West BC, Lary CH et al (1987) Environmental nonhuman sources of leprosy. Rev Infect Dis 9:562
Lavania M, Katoch K, Katoch VM et al (2008) Detection of viable Mycobacterium leprae in soil samples: insights into possible sources of transmission of leprosy. Infect Genet Evol 8:627
Kazda J, Irgens LM, Müller K (1980) Isolation of non-cultivable acid-fast bacilli in sphagnum and moss vegetation by foot pad technique in mice. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 48:1
Kazda J (1981) Occurrence of non-cultivable acid-fast bacilli in the environment and their relationship to M. leprae. Lepr Rev 52(Suppl 1):85
Mostafa HM, Kazda J, Irgens LM et al (1995) Acid-fast bacilli from former leprosy regions in coastal Norway showing PCR positivity for Mycobacterium leprae. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 63:97
Lahiri R, Krahenbuhl JL (2008) The role of free-living pathogenic amoeba in the transmission of leprosy: a proof of principle. Lepr Rev 79:401
Saha K, Jain M, Mukherjee MK et al (1985) Viability of Mycobacterium leprae within the gut of Aedes aegypti after they feed on multibacillary lepromatous patients: a study by fluorescent and electron microscopes. Lepr Rev 56:279
Sreevatsa (1993) Leprosy and arthropods. Indian J Lepr 65:189
Couret M (1911) The behavior of bacillus leprae in cold-blooded animals. J Exp Med 13:576
Chaussinand R (1952) Inoculation of Hansen and Stefansky bacilli in the rainbow perch Eupomotis gibbosus. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 20:420
Gormus BJ, Xu K, Baskin GB et al (1998) Experimental leprosy in rhesus monkeys: transmission, susceptibility, clinical and immunological findings. Lepr Rev 69:235
Walsh GP, Meyers WM, Binford CH (1986) Naturally acquired leprosy in the nine-banded armadillo: a decade of experience 1975–1985. J Leukoc Biol 40:645
Truman RW, Shannon EJ, Hagstad HV et al (1986) Evaluation of the origin of Mycobacterium leprae infections in the wild armadillo, Dasypus novemcinctus. AmJTrop Med Hyg 35:588
Taylor CE, Elliston EP, Gideon H (1965) A symptomatic infections in leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 33:716
Deps PD, Alves BL, Gripp CG et al (2008) Contact with armadillos increases the risk of leprosy in Brazil: a case control study. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 74:338
Abide JM, Webb RM, Jones HL et al (2008) Three indigenous cases of leprosy in the Mississippi delta. South Med J 101:635
Sterne JA, Pönnighaus JM, Fine PEM et al (1995) Geographic determinants of leprosy in Karonga District, Northern Malawi. Int J Epidemiol 24:1211
Davey TF, Rees RJ (1974) The nasal dicharge in leprosy: clinical and bacteriological aspects. Lepr Rev 45:121
Rees RJ, Meade TW (1974) Comparison of the modes of spread and the incidence of tuberculosis and leprosy. Lancet 1:47
Huang CL (1980) The transmission of leprosy in man. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 48:309
Desikan KV (1977) Viability of Mycobacterium leprae outside the human body. Lepr Rev 48:231
Desikan KV, Sreevatsa (1995) Extended studies on the viability of Mycobacterium leprae outside the human body. Lepr Rev 66:287
Mosi L, Williamson H, Wallace JR et al (2008) Persistent association of Mycobacterium ulcerans with West African predaceous insects of the family Belostomatidae. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:7036
Leininger JR, Donham KJ, Rubino MJ et al (1980) Naturally acquired leprosy in a chimpanzee: necropsy findings and experimental transmission to other animals. Lab Investig 42:132
Meyers WM, Gormus BJ, Walsh GP (1992) Nonhuman sources of leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 60:477
Levy L, Ji B (2006) The mouse foot-pad technique for cultivation of Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr Rev 77:5
Balamayooran G, Pena M, Sharma R et al (2015) The armadillo as an animal model and reservoir host for Mycobacterium leprae. Clin Dermatol 33:108
Walsh GP, Storrs EE, Burchfield HP et al (1975) Leprosy-like disease occurring naturally in armadillos. J Reticuloendothel Soc 18:347
Smith JH, Folse DS, Long EG et al (1983) Leprosy in wild armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) of the Texas Gulf Coast: epidemiology and mycobacteriology. J Reticuloendothel Soc 34:75
Talmage RV, Buchanan CD (1954) The armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus). A review of its natural history, ecology, anatomy, and reproductive physiology. The Rice Institute Pamphlet Monograph in Biology. 41(2):1–135 Rice Institute, Huston
Kirchheimer WF, Sanchez RM (1976) Quantitative aspects of leprosy in armadillos. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 44:84
Truman RW, Sanchez RM (1993) Armadillos: models for leprosy. Lab Anim 22:28
Truman RW (2008) Leprosy. In: Vizcaino SF, Loughry WJ (eds) The biology of Xenarthra. University Press of Florida, Gainesville, p 111
Mira MT, Alcaïs A, Nguyen VT et al (2004) Susceptibility to leprosy is associated with PARK2 and PACR6. Nature 427:636
Alter A, Grant A, Abel L et al (2011) Leprosy as a genetic disease. Mamm Genome 22:19
Adams LB, Pena MT, Sharma R et al (2012) Insights from animal models on the immunogenetics of leprosy: a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107(Suppl 1):197
Binford CH, Meyers WM, Walsh GP et al (1977) Naturally acquired leprosy-like disease in the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus): histopathologic and microbiologic studies of tissues. J Reticuloendothel Soc 22:377
Rosa PS, Belone AF, Silva EA (2005) Mitsuda reaction in armadillo Dasypus novemcinctus using human and armadillo derived antigens. Hansen Int 30:180
Badger LF (1955) Leprosy in the United States. Public Health Rep 70:525
Zumarraga MJ, Resoagli EH, Cicuta ME et al (2001) PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (PRA) of Mycobacterium leprae from human lepromas and from a natural case of an armadillo of Corrientes, Argentina. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 69:21
Deps PD, Antunes JM, Tomimori-Yamashita J (2007) Detection of Mycobacterium leprae infection in wild nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) using the rapid ML Flow test. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 40:86
Deps PD, Antunes JM, Faria C et al (2008) Research regarding anti-PGL-I antibodies by ELISA in wild armadillos from Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 41(Suppl 2):73
Frota CC, Lima LN, Rocha Ada S et al (2012) Mycobacterium leprae in six-banded (Euphractus sexcinctus) and nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) in Northeast Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107(Suppl 1):209
Cardona-Castro N, Beltrán JC, Ortiz-Bernal A et al (2009) Detection of Mycobacterium leprae DNA in nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) from the Andean region of Colombia. Lepr Rev 80:424
Amezcua ME, Escobar-Gutiérrez A, Storrs EE et al (1984) Wild Mexican armadillo with leprosy-like infection. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 52:254
Colleen M, McDonough CM (2000) Social organization of nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) in a Riparian habitat. Am Midl Nat 144:139
Lisa N-T, Jose Luis M, Adrian T et al (2003) Wildlife survival beyond park boundaries: the impact of slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting on mammals in Tambopata, Peru. Conserv Biol 4:1106
Pattyn SR, Persi A (1990) Microbiologia. In: Nunzi E, Leiker DL (eds) Manuale di leprologia. O.C.S.I., Bologna, p 7
Draper P (1982) The anatomy of mycobacteria. In: Rutledge C, Stanford J (eds) The biology of the mycobacteria. Academic Press, London, p 9
Rees RJW (1994) The microbiology of leprosy. In: Hastings RC (ed) Leprosy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, p 31
Nishiura M, Okada S, Izumi S et al (1969) An electron microscope study of the band structure of the leprosy bacillus and other mycobacteria. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 37:225
Shepard CC, McRae DH (1965) Mycobacterium leprae in mice: minimal infectious dose, relationship between staining quality and infectivity, and effect of cortisone. J Bacteriol 89:365
Levy L (1976) Studies of the mouse foot pad technique for cultivation of Mycobacterium leprae. 3. Doubling time during logarithmic multiplication. Lepr Rev 47:103
Rees RJ (1971) The impact of experimental human leprosy in the mouse on leprosy research. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:201
Storrs EE (1971) The nine-banded armadillo: a model for leprosy and other biomedical research. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:703
Shepard CC (1965) Temperature optimum of Mycobacterium leprae in mice. J Bacteriol 90:1271
Draper P (1982) Bacteriology of Mycobacterium leprae: state of the art paper. Ann Microbiol (Paris) 133:13
Brennan PJ, Barrow WW (1980) Evidence for species-specific lipid antigens in Mycobacterium leprae. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 48:382
Hunter SW, Brennan PJ (1981) A novel phenolic glycolipid from Mycobacterium leprae possibly involved in immunogenicity and pathogenicity. J Bacteriol 147:728
Payne SN, Draper P, Rees RJ (1982) Serological activity of purified glycolipid from Mycobacterium leprae. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 50:220
Brett SJ, Draper P, Payne SN et al (1983) Serological activity of a characteristic phenolic glycolipid from Mycobacterium leprae in sera from patients with leprosy and tuberculosis. Clin Exp Immunol 52:271
Draper P, Payne SN, Dobson G et al (1983) Isolation of a characteristic phthiocerol demycocerosate from Mycobacterium leprae. J Gen Microbiol 129:859
Waters MF, Rees RJ (1962) Changes in the morphology of Mycobacterium leprae in patients under treatment. Int J Lepr 30:266
Ridley DS (1971) The SFG (solid, fragmented, granular) index for bacterial morphology. Lepr Rev 42:96
Wheeler PR, Damiani G (1990) Biochimica del Mycobacterium leprae. In: Nunzi E, Leiker DL (eds) Manuale di leprologia. O.C.S.I., Bologna, p 13
Khanolkar SR (1982) Preliminary studies of the metabolic activity of purified suspensions of Mycobacterium leprae. J Gen Microbiol 128:423
Rees RJ (1964) The significance of the lepromin reaction in man. In: Kallós P, Waksman BH (eds) Progress in allergy. Vol. 8, Chem Immunol Allergy. Karger, Basel, p 224
World Health Organization Memorandum (1979) Recommended safety requirements for the preparation of lepromin. Bull WHO 13:88
Dharmendra (1941) The active principle of lepromin is a protein antigen of the bacillus. Lepr India 13:89
Dharmendra (1942) Immunological skin tests in leprosy. Indian J Med Res 30:1
Weddell G, Palmer E (1963) The pathogenesis of leprosy. An experimental approach. Lepr Rev 34:57
Pedley JC (1970) Composite skin contact smears: a method of demonstrating the non-emergence of Mycobacterium leprae from intact lepromatous skin. Lepr Rev 41:31
Job CK, Jayakumar J, Aschhoff M (1999) “Large numbers” of Mycobacterium leprae are discharged from the intact skin of lepromatous patients; a preliminary report. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 67:164
Schaffer (1898) Uber die Verbreitung der Lepra bazillen von den oberon Luftwegen aus (The spread of leprosy bacilli from the upper parts of the respiratory tract). Arch Dermatol Syphilis (Berlin) 44:159
Pedley JC (1973) The nasal mucus in leprosy. Lepr Rev 44:33
Pedley JC (1967) The presence of M. leprae in human milk. Lepr Rev 38:239
Khanolkar VR (1955) Perspectives in pathology of leprosy. Indian J Med Sci 9:1
Wedded AGH, Palmer E, Reas RJW et al (1963) Experimental observations related to histopathology of leprosy. In: CIBA Foundation Study Group No. 15 (ed) The pathogenesis of leprosy. J and A Churchill Ltd, London, p 3
Cochrane RG (1947) A practical text-book of leprosy. Oxford University Press, London
Shepard CC, Walker LL, Van Landingham RM et al (1982) Sensitization or tolerance to Mycobacterium leprae antigen by route of injection. Infect Immun 38:673
Rees RJ, McDougall AC (1977) Airborne infection with Mycobacterium leprae in mice. J Med Microbiol 10:63
Leiker DL (1977) On the mode of transmission of Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr Rev 48:9
Godal T, Negassi K (1973) Subclinical infection in leprosy. Br Med J 3:557
Abe M, Minagawa F, Yoshino Y et al (1980) Fluorescent leprosy antibody absorption (FLA-ABS) test for detecting subclinical infection with Mycobacterium leprae. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 48:109
Zuniga M, Castellazziz Z, Lambert P et al (1982) Immunoprophylaxis in contacts of leprosy endemic area. Preliminary results. Paper presented at Pan American Center for Research and Training in Leprosy and Tropical Diseases, CEPIALET, Caracas, 29–30 April 1982
Noordeen SK (1985) The epidemiology of leprosy. In: Hastings RC (ed) Leprosy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, p 15
Montestruc E, Berdonneau R (1954) Two new cases of leprosy in infants in Martinique. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 47:781
National Communicable Disease Center (1970) US Department of Health Education and Welfare/Public Health Service 1970 Leprosy Surveillance. January 1970, Report No 1
Bechelli LM (1936) O tempo de incubação da lepora. Rip Brasil Lepr 4:355
Prasad KUN, Ali PM (1967) Incubation period of leprosy. Indian J Med Res 55:29
Hansen GHA (1874) Undersogelser angraaende spedalskhedens aasager. Nor Mag Laegervidenskaben (Suppl) 4:1
Hansen GHA (1875) On the etiology of leprosy. Chirurg Rev 55:459
Bowne SG (1985) The history of leprosy. In: Hastings RC (ed) Leprosy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, p 15
Tram E, Liftmann J (1908) Derivate des p-nitrophenols. Berichte Deutsche Chemischen Gesellschaft 21:2264
Faget GH, Pogge RC, Johansen FA et al (1943) The Promin treatment of leprosy. Public Health Rep 58:1729
Browne SG, Hogerzeil LM (1962) “B 633” in the treatment of leprosy. Lepr Rev 33:6
World Health Organization (1982) Chemotherapy of leprosy for control programmes. World Health Organization, Technicall Report Series 675
Lara CB, Falasco JO (1956) Self-healing or abortive and residual forms of childhood leprosy and their probable significance. Int J Lepr 24:245
Noordeen SK (1975) Evolution of tuberculoid leprosy in a community. Lepr India 47:85
Giunto RS, Doull JA, de Guia L et al (1954) Mortality of persons with leprosy prior to sulfone therapy, Cordova and Dalisay, Cebu, Philippines. Int J Lepr 22:273
Noordeen SK (1972) Mortality in leprosy. Indian J Med Res 60:439
Monot M, Honoré N, Garnier T et al (2009) Comparative genomic and phylogeographic analysis of Mycobacterium leprae. Nat Genet 41:1282
Schurr E, Alcaïs A, de Léséleuc L et al (2006) Genetic predisposition to leprosy: a major gene reveals novel pathways of immunity to Mycobacterium leprae. Semin Immunol 18:404
Sauer ME, Salomão H, Ramos GB et al (2016) Genetics of leprosy: expected- and unexpected-developments and perspectives. Clin Dermatol 34:96
Mazini PS, Alves HV, Reis PG et al (2016) Gene association with leprosy: a review of published data. Front Immunol 6:658
Schields ED, Russel DA, Pericak-Vance MA (1987) Genetic epidemiology of the susceptibility to leprosy. Clin Invest 79:1139
Mohamed AP, Ramanujan K (1966) Leprosy in twins. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 34:405
Chakravartti MR, Vogel F (1973) A twin study on leprosy. In: Becker PE, Lenz W, Vogel F et al (eds) Topics in human genetics, vol 1. Georg Thieme Publishers, Stuttgart, p 1
Prado Montes de Oca E (2011) Human polymorphisms as clinical predictors in leprosy. J Trop Med 2011:923943
Fava VM, Mira MT (2012) Genetics of leprosy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy: a practical guide. Springer, Milan, p 19
Shankarkumar U (2004) HLA associations in leprosy patients from Mumbai, India. Lepr Rev 75:79
Cardoso CC, Pereira AC, de Sales Marques C et al (2011) Leprosy susceptibility: genetic variations regulate innate and adaptive immunity, and disease outcome. Future Microbiol 6:533
Misch EA, Berrington WR, Vary JC Jr et al (2010) Leprosy and the human genome. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 74:589
Cardoso CC, Pereira AC, Brito-de-Souza VN et al (2011) TNF -308G>A single nucleotide polymorphism is associated with leprosy among Brazilians: a genetic epidemiology assessment, meta-analysis, and functional study. J Infect Dis 204:1256
Alcaïs A, Alter A, Antoni G et al (2007) Stepwise replication identifies a low-producing lymphotoxin-alpha allele as a major risk factor for early-onset leprosy. Nat Genet 39:517
Hagge DA, Saunders BM, Ebenezer GJ et al (2009) Lymphotoxin-alpha and TNF have essential but independent roles in the evolution of the granulomatous response in experimental leprosy. Am J Pathol 174:1379
Mira MT (2006) Genetic host resistance and susceptibility to leprosy. Microbes Infect 8:1124
Ishida H, Hastings R, Thompson-Snipes L et al (1993) Modified immunological status of anti-IL-10 treated mice. Cell Immunol 148:371
Malhotra D, Darvishi K, Lohra M et al (2006) Association study of major risk single nucleotide polymorphisms in the common regulatory region of PARK2 and PACRG genes with leprosy in an Indian population. Eur J Hum Genet 14:438
Misch EA, Hawn TR (2008) Toll-like receptor polymorphisms and susceptibility to human disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 114:347
Bochud PY, Sinsimer D, Aderem A et al (2009) Polymorphisms in Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) are associated with protection against leprosy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 28:1055
Sousa AL, Fava VM, Sampaio LH et al (2012) Genetic and immunological evidence implicates interleukin 6 as a susceptibility gene for leprosy type 2 reaction. J Infect Dis 205:1417
Nath I, Saini C, Valluri VL (2015) Immunology of leprosy and diagnostic challenges. Clin Dermatol 33:90
de Souza VN, Iyer AM, Lammas DA et al (2016) Advances in leprosy immunology and the field application: a gap to bridge. Clin Dermatol 34:82
Naafs B (2000) Current views on reactions in leprosy. Indian J Lepr 72:97
Verhagen C, Faber W, Klatser P et al (1999) Immunohistological analysis of in situ expression of mycobacterial antigens in skin lesions of leprosy patients across the histopathological spectrum. Association of mycobacterial lipoarabinomannan (LAM) and Mycobacterium leprae phenolic glycolipid-I (PGL-I) with leprosy reactions. Am J Pathol 154:1793
Modlin RL (2010) The innate immune response in leprosy. Curr Opin Immunol 22:48
Cho SN, Yanagihara DL, Hunter SW et al (1983) Serological specificity of phenolic glycolipid-I from Mycobacterium leprae and use in serodiagnosis of leprosy. Infect Immun 41:1077
Lipscomb MF, Masten BJ (2002) Dendritic cells: immune regulators in health and disease. Physiol Rev 82:97
Harrington LE, Mangan PR, Weaver CT (2006) Expanding the effector CD4 T-cell repertoire: the Th17 lineage. Curr Opin Immunol 18:349
Attia EA, Abdallah M, Saad AA et al (2010) Circulating CD4+ CD25 high FoxP3+ T cells vary in different clinical forms of leprosy. Int J Dermatol 49:1152
Kumar S, Naqvi RA, Ali R et al (2013) CD4+CD25+ T regs with acetylated FoxP3 are associated with immune suppression in human leprosy. Mol Immunol 56:513
Bührer-Sékula S, Smits HL, Gussenhoven GC et al (2003) Simple and fast lateral flow test for classification of leprosy patients and identification of contacts with high risk of developing leprosy. J Clin Microbiol 41:1991
Brett SJ, Payne SN, Draper P et al (1984) Analysis of the major antigenic determinants of the characteristic phenolic glycolipid from Mycobacterium leprae. Clin Exp Immunol 56:89
Fujiwara T, Hunter SW, Cho SN et al (1984) Chemical synthesis and serology of disaccharides and trisaccharides of phenolic glycolipid antigen from the leprosy bacillus and preparation of a disaccharide protein conjugate for serodiagnosis of leprosy. Infect Immunol 43:245
Fujiwara T, Aspinall GO, Hunter SW et al (1987) Chemical synthesis of the trisaccharide unit of the species-specific phenolic glycolipid from Mycobacterium leprae. Carbohydr Res 163:41
Fujiwara T, Aspinall GO, Hunter SW et al (1986) Chemical synthesis of the disaccharides of the specific phenolic glycolipid antigenes from Mycobacterium leprae and of the related sugars. Carbohydr Res 148:287
Lefford MJ, Hunegnaw M, Siwik E (1991) The value of IgM antibodies to PGL-I in the diagnosis of leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 59:432
Smith PG (1992) The serodiagnosis of leprosy. Lepr Rev 63:97
Cho SN, Cellona RV, Fajardo TT Jr et al (1991) Detection of phenolic glycolipid-I antigen and antibody in sera from new and relapsed lepromatous patients treated with various drug regimens. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 59:25
Oskam L, Slim E, Bührer-Sékula S (2003) Serology: recent developments, strengths, limitations and prospects: a state of the art overview. Lepr Rev 74:196
Lospalluti M, Angelini G, Meneghini CL (1972) Observations sur les réactions cutaneés du type immunologique différé à divers allergènes dans un groupe de sujets lépromateux. Acta Leprol 135:48
Meneghini CL, Angelini G, Lospalluti M et al (1974) Cutaneous responses to irritants and microbial antigens in lepromatous patients. Trans St John’s Hosp Derm Soc 60:91
Yamamura M (1992) Defining protective responses to pathogens: cytokine profiles in leprosy lesions. Science 255:12
Martiniuk F, Giovinazzo J, Tan AU et al (2012) Lessons of leprosy: the emergence of TH17 cytokines during type II reactions (ENL) is teaching us about T-cell plasticity. J Drugs Dermatol 11:626
Saini C, Ramesh V, Nath I (2013) CD4+ Th17 cells discriminate clinical types and constitute a third subset of non Th1, non Th2 T cells in human leprosy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7:e2338
Palermo ML, Pagliari C, Trindade MA et al (2012) Increased expression of regulatory T cells and down-regulatory molecules in lepromatous leprosy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86:878
Geluk A, Klein MR, Franken KL et al (2005) Postgenomic approach to identify novel Mycobacterium leprae antigens with potential to improve immunodiagnosis of infection. Infect Immunol 73:5636
Geluk A, Bobosha K, van der Ploeg-van Schip JJ et al (2012) New biomarkers with relevance to leprosy diagnosis applicable in areas hyperendemic for leprosy. J Immunol 188:4782
Martins MV, Guimarães MM, Spencer JS et al (2012) Pathogen-specific epitopes as epidemiological tools for defining the magnitude of Mycobacterium leprae transmission in areas endemic for leprosy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 6:e1616
Bobosha K, Tang ST, van der Ploeg-van Schip JJ et al (2012) Mycobacterium leprae virulence-associated peptides are indicators of exposure to M. leprae in Brazil, Ethiopia and Nepal. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107(Suppl 1):112
Duthie MS, Goto W, Ireton GC et al (2007) Use of protein antigens for early serological diagnosis of leprosy. Clin Vaccine Immunol 14:1400
Hungria EM, Oliveira RM, Souza AL et al (2012) Seroreactivity to new Mycobacterium leprae protein antigens in different leprosy-endemic regions in Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 107(Suppl 1):104
Iyer A, Hatta M, Usman R et al (2007) Serum levels of interferon-gamma, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, soluble interleukin-6R and soluble cell activation markers for monitoring response to treatment of leprosy reactions. Clin Exp Immunol 150:210
Moubasher AD, Kamel NA, Zedan H et al (1998) Cytokines in leprosy. I. Serum cytokine profile in leprosy. Int J Dermatol 37:733
Laal S, Bhutani LK, Nath I (1985) Natural emergence of antigen-reactive T cells in lepromatous leprosy patients during erythema nodosum leprosum. Infect Immunol 50:887
Moraes MO, Duppre NC, Suffys PN et al (2001) Tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter polymorphism TNF2 is associated with a stronger delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction in the skin of borderline tuberculoid leprosy patients. Immunogenetics 53:45
Narayanan RB, Bhutani LK, Sharma AK et al (1983) T cell subsets in leprosy lesions: in situ characterization using monoclonal antibodies. Clin Exp Immunol 51:421
Moraes MO, Sarno EN, Almeida AS et al (1999) Cytokine mRNA expression in leprosy: a possible role for interferon-gamma and interleukin-12 in reactions (RR and ENL). Scand J Immunol 50:541
Kaplan G, Mathur NK, Job CK et al (1989) Effect of multiple interferon gamma injections on the disposal of Mycobacterium leprae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86:8073
Spierings E, De Boer T, Zulianello L et al (2000) Novel mechanisms in the immunopathogenesis of leprosy nerve damage: the role of Schwann cells, T cells and Mycobacterium leprae. Immunol Cell Biol 78:349
Oliveira RB, Ochoa MT, Sieling PA et al (2003) Expression of Toll-like receptor 2 on human Schwann cells: a mechanism of nerve damage in leprosy. Infect Immunol 71:1427
Job CK (1971) Pathology of peripheral nerve lesions in lepromatous leprosy. A light and electron microscopic study. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:251
Rambukkana A (2004) Mycobacterium leprae-induced demyelinization: a model for early nerve degeneration. Curr Opin Immunol 16:511
Naafs B, Dagne T (1977) Sensory testing: a sensitive method in the follow-up of nerve involvement. Int J Lepr 45:364
Meyers WM (1990) Istopatologia. In: Nunzi E, Leiker DL (eds) Manuale di leprologia. O.C.S.I., Bologna, p 87
Massone C, Belachew WA, Schettini A (2015) Histopathology of the lepromatous skin biopsy. Clin Dermatol 33:38
Singh A, Weng X, Nath I (2011) Skin biopsy in leprosy. In: Khopkar U (ed) Skin biopsy—perspectives. In Tech, Rijeka, Croatia, p 73
Riddley DS (1977) Skin biopsy in leprosy. Ciba-Geigy, Basel, p 63
Massone C (2012) Histopatholgy of the skin. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Spriger, Berlin, p 115
Pradeep NS, Nanda KG (2013) A clinical and histopathological study of histoid leprosy. Int J Dermatol 52:580
Magaña M (2012) Lucio-Latapi leprosy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Spriger, Berlin, p 111
Magaña M (2012) Lucio’s phenomenon. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Spriger, Berlin, p 241
Klatser PR, Cardo PP (1990) Esami sierologici. In: Nunzi E, Leiker DL (eds) Manuale di leprologia. O.C.S.I., Bologna, p 103
Britton WJ, Lockwood DN (2004) Leprosy. Lancet 363:1209
Talhari C, Talhari S, Penna GO (2015) Clinical aspects of leprosy. Clin Dermatol 33:26
Pereira AC Jr, Do Nascimento LV (1982) Indeterminate Hansen’s disease. Med Cutan Ibero Lat Am 10:159
Sehgal VN, Srivastava G (1987) Indeterminate leprosy. A passing phase in the evolution of leprosy. Lepr Rev 58:291
Walker SL, Lockwood DN (2007) Leprosy. Clin Dermatol 25:165
Schaller KF (1971) Differential diagnosis of leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 39:447
Mahé A (1996) Leprosy differential diagnosis in 1996. Acta Leprol 10:69
Meneghini CL, Angelini G (1972) Sur un cas de lèpre tuberculoïde: contagion par le conjoint attent de lèpre lepromateuse. Acta Leprol 48–49:187
Meneghini CL, Angelini G, Lospalluti M (1986) Hansen’s disease in children. Pediatric Dermatol News 5:162
Bechelli LM, Pagnano PM (1990) Reflections on some aspects of leprosy among children in Brazil and in other countries. Acta Leprol 7:229
Cortés SL, Rodriguez G (2004) Leprosy in children: association between clinical and pathological aspects. J Trop Pediatr 50:12
Rollier R, Rollier B (1986) Clinical and developmental aspects of lepromatous leprosy. Acta Leprol 4:193
Brazin SA (1982) Leprosy (Hansen’s disease). Otolaryngol Clin N Am 15:597
Pollack JD, Pincus RL, Lucente FE (1987) Leprosy of the head and neck. Otolaryngol Hed Neck Surg 97:93
Uplekar MW, Antia NH (1986) Clinical and histopathological observations on pure neuritic leprosy. Indian J Lepr 58:513
Gabino JA, Naafs B (2012) Primary neural leprosy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Springer, Milan
Wade HW (1963) The histoid variety of lepromatous leprosy. Int J Lepr 31:129
Latapi F, Zamora AC (1948) The spotted leprosy of Lucio: an introduction to its clinical and histopathological study. Int J Lepr 16:421
Azulay-Abulafia L, Spinelli L (2005) Revisiting Lucio’s leprosy and Lucio’s phenomenon. Med Cutan Ibero Lat Am 33:125
Azulay-Abulafia L, Pereira Spinelli L et al (2006) Lucio’s phenomenon. Vasculitis or occlusive vasculopathy? Hautarzt 57:1101
Magaña M, Fernández-Diez J, Magaña ML (2008) Lucio’s phenomenon is a necrotizing panvasculitis: mostly a medium-sized granulomatous arteritis. Am J Dermopathol 30:555
Jurado F, Rodriguez O, Novales J et al (2015) Lucio’s leprosy: a clinical and therapeutic challenge. Clin Dermatol 33:66
Lucio R, Alvarado I (1852) Opuscolo sobre el mal de San Lazaro o elefanciasis de los Griecos. M. Murguia y Cia, Mexico
Rodriguez O (1978) Lepra de Lucio. I. Historia y concepto. Dermatol Rev Mex 22:117
Leprosy reported by World Heart Organization. www.who.int/entity/lep/situation/latestdata/en2012
Han XY, Seo YH, Sizer KC et al (2008) A new mycobacterium species causing diffuse lepromatous leprosy. Am J Clin Pathol 130:856
Han XY, Sizer KC, Thompson EJ et al (2009) Comparative sequence analysis of Mycobacterium leprae and the new leprosy-causing Mycobacterium lepromatosis. J Bacteriol 191:6067
Vera-Cabrera L, Escalante-Fuentes WG, Gomez-Flores M et al (2011) Case of diffuse lepromatous leprosy associated with Mycobacterium lepromatosis. J Clin Microbiol 49:4366
Jessamine PG, Desjardins M, Gillis T et al (2012) Leprosy-like illness in a patient with Mycobacterium lepromatosis from Ontario. Canada J Drugs Dermatol 119:229
Han XY, Sizer KC, Tan HH (2012) Identification of the leprosy agent Mycobacterium lepromatosis in Singapore. J Drugs Dermatol 11:168
Gillis TP, Scolland DM, Lockwood DN (2011) What is the evidence that putative Mycobacterium lepromatosis species causes diffuse lepromatous leprosy? Lepr Rev 82:205
Novales J (1978) Lepra de Lucio. III. Aspectos histopathologicos. Dermatol Rev Mex 22:164
Fogaguolo L, de Sonza EM, Cintra ML et al (2007) Vasculonecrotic reactions in leprosy. Braz J Infect Dis 11:378
Duncan E (2012) Leprosy in pregnancy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Springer, Milan, p 331
Duncan ME (1980) Babies of mothers with leprosy have small placentae, low birth weights and grow slowly. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 87:471
Duncan ME, Pearson JM, Rees RJ et al (1981) The association of pregnancy and leprosy. II. Pregnancy in dapsone-resistant leprosy. Lepr Rev 52:263
Lopez MGS, Saad MH, Sarno EN (1993) Leprosy-study of 20 placentas and the repercussion of the newborn. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 61(Suppl 122A):PA10
Duncan ME, Melsom R, Pearson JM et al (1983) A clinical and immunological study of four babies of mothers with lepromatous leprosy, two of whom developed leprosy in infancy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 51:7
Ponnighans JM, Mwanjasi LJ, Fine PE (1991) Is HIV infection a risk factor for leprosy? Int J Other Mycobact Dis 59:221
Talhari C, Mira MT, Massone C et al (2010) Leprosy and HIV coinfection: a clinical, pathological, immunological, and therapeutic study of a cohort from a Brazilian referral center for infections diseases. J Infect Dis 202:345
Lawn SD, Wood C, Lockwood DN (2003) Borderline tuberculoid leprosy: an immune reconstitution phenomenon in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected person. Clin Infect Dis 36:e5–e6
Couppie P, Abel S, Voinchet H (2004) Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome associated with HIV and leprosy. Arch Dermatol 140:997
Talhari C, Machado PR, Ferreira LC et al (2007) Shifting of the clinical spectrum of leprosy in an HIV-positive patient: a manifestation of immune recostitution inflammatory syndrome? Lepr Rev 78:151
Talhari C, Matsuo C, Chrusciak-Talhari A et al (2009) Variations in leprosy manifestations among HIV-positive patients, Manaus Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 15:673
Deps P, Lucas S, Porro AM et al (2013) Clinical and histological features of leprosy and human immunodeficiency virus co-infection in Brazil. Clin Exp Dermatol 38:470
Naafs B, van Hess CLM (2016) Leprosy type 1 reaction (formerly reversal reaction). Clin Dermatol 34:37
Walker SL, Lockwood DN (2008) Leprosy type1 (reversal) reaction and their management. Lepr Rev 79:372
Naafs B, Noto S (2012) Reactions in leprosy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Springer, Milan, p 219
Sung SM, Kobayashi TT (2015) Diagnosis and treatment of leprosy type 1 (reversal) reaction. Cutis 95:222
Narayanan RB, Laal S, Sharma AK et al (1984) Differeces in predominant phenotype and distribution pattern in reactional lesions of tuberculoid and lepromatous leprosy. Clin Exp Immunol 55:623
Yamamura M, Uyemura K, Deaus RJ et al (1991) Definig protective responses to pathogens: cytokine profiles in leprosy lesions. Science 254:277
Yamamura M, Wang LH, Ohmen JD et al (1992) Cytokine patterns of immunologically mediated tissue damage. J Immunol 149:1470
Khanolkar-Young S, Rayment N, Brickell PM et al (1995) Tumor necrosis factor alfa (TNFα) synthesis is associated with skin and peripheral nerve pathology of leprosy reversal reaction. Clin Exp Immunol 99:196
Iyer AM, Mohanty KK, van Egmond D et al (2007) Leprosy-specific B-cells within cellular infiltrates in active leprosy lesions. Hum Pathol 38:1065
Bjune G, Barnetson RSC, Ridley DS et al (1976) Lymphocyte transformation test in leprosy. Correlation of the response with inflammation of the lesions. Clin Exp Immunol 25:85
Barnetson RSC, Bjune G, Pearson JMH et al (1975) Antigenic heterogeneity in patients with reactions in borderline leprosy. Br Med J 4:435
Shetty VP, Uplekar MW, Autia NH (1994) Immunohistological localization of mycobacterial antigens within the peripheral nerves of treated leprosy patients and their significance to nerve damage in leprosy. Acta Neuropathol 87:300
Youmans GP (1975) Relation between delayed type hypersensitivity and immunity in tuberculosis. Ann Rev Respir Dis 111:109
Naafs B (1994) Leprosy reactions: new knowledge. Trop Geogr Med 46:80
Souza CS, Roselino AM, Figueiredo F et al (2000) Lucio’s phenomenon: clinical and therapeutic aspects. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 68:417
Fleury RD (2008) Diffuse lepromatous leprosy and Lucio’s phenomenon: focus on new etiology. Hansen Int 33:7
Saul A, Novales J (1983) Lucio-Latapi leprosy and Lucio’s phenomenon. Acta Leprol 1:115
Rea TH, Riddley DS (1979) Lucio’s phenomenon. A comparative histological study. Int J Lepr 47:161
Rea TH, Jerskey RS (2005) Clinical and histologic variations among thirty patients with Lucio’s phenomenon and pure and primitive diffuse lepromatosis (Latapi’s lepromatosis). Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 73:169
Vargas-Ocampo F (2004) Analysis of 6000 skin biopsies of the National Leprosy Central Program in Mexico. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 72:427
Scollard DM, Truman RW, Ebenezer GJ (2015) Mechanism of nerve injury in leprosy. Clin Dermatol 33:46
Raicher I, Stump PR, Baccarelli R et al (2016) Neuropatic pain in leprosy. Clin Dermatol 34:59
Garbino JA, Heise CO, Marques W (2016) Assessing nerves in leprosy. Clin Dermatol 34:51
Saunderson P (2000) The epidemiology of reactions and nerve damage. Work Shop Proceedings: Leprosy Research at the new Millennium. Lepr Rev 71(Suppl):S106
Wolf GI, Trivedi JR (2004) Painful peripheral neuropathy and its non-surgical treatment. Muscle Nerve 30:3
Hietaharju A, Croft R, Alan R et al (2000) Chronic neuropathic pain in treated leprosy. Lancet 356:1080
Haroun OH, Hietaharju A, Bizuneh E et al (2012) Investigation of neuropathic pain in treated leprosy patients in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study. Pain 153:1620
Dabholkar VR, Gaitonde BB (1982) A study of autonomic functions in leprosy. Lepr India 54:303
Pearson JM, Ross WF (1975) Nerve involvement in leprosy-pathology, differential diagnosis and principles of management. Lepr Rev 46:199
Flytche TJ (1991) The continuining challenge of ocular leprosy. Br J Ophthalmol 75:123
Grzybowski A, Nita M, Virmond M (2015) Ocular leprosy. Clin Dermatol 33:79
Citirik M, Batman C, Asian O et al (2005) Lepromatous iridocyclitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm 13:95
Ebemzer GJ, Daniel E (2004) Expression of protein gene product 9.5 in lepromatous eyes showing ciliary body nerve damage and a “dying back” phenomenon in the posterior ciliary nerves. Br J Ophthalmol 88:178
Mnogo CE, Bella-Hiag AL, Ellong A et al (2001) Ocular complications of leprosy in Cameroon. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 79:31
Singhi MK, Kacchawa D, Ghiya BC (2002) Ocular involvement in leprosy. Indian J Ophthalmol 50:355
Lewallen S, Tungpakom NC, Kim SH et al (2000) Progression of eye disease in “cured” leprosy patients: implications for understanding the pathophysiology of ocular disease and for addressing eye care needs. Br J Ophthalmol 84:817
Lavilla L, Castillo J, Dominguez AM et al (2009) Surgical treatment of bilateral paralytic lagophthalmos using scapha graft in a case of lepromatous leprosy. Lepr Rev 80:448
Font RL, Sobol W, Matoba A (1989) Polychromatic corneal and conjunctival crystals secondary to clofazimine therapy in leper. Ophthalmology 96:311
Barot RK, Viswanath V, Pattiwar MS et al (2011) Crystalline deposition in the cornea and conjunctiva secondary to longterm clofazimine therapy in a leprosy patient. Indian J Ophthalmol 59:328
Hogeweg M, Keunen JE (2005) Prevention of blindness in leprosy and the role of the Vision 2020 Programme. Eye 19:1099
Walton RC, Ball SF, Joffrion VC (1991) Glaucoma in Hansen’s disease. Br J Ophthalmol 75:270
Azulay RD (1987) Primary visceral virchowian (lepromatous) hanseniasis. Int J Lepr 55:450
Clapasson A, Canata S (2012) Laboratory investigations. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Spriger, Milan, p 55
Nunzi E, Massone C, Noto S (2012) Diagnostic work-up. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Spriger, Milan, p 271
Jain S, Visser LH, Suneetha S (2016) Imaging techniques in leprosy clinics. Clin Dermatol 34:70
Matthews LVB (1965) Sarcoidosis of the nervous system. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 28:23
Mumo DD, Du Vivier A, Jopling WH (1972) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Br J Dermatol 87:374
Desai AC, Bhide MB (1977) Hydnocarpus oil as an anti-leprotic agent in mouse foot-pad technique. Lepr India 49:360
Grosset JH (1995) Traitement anti-bactérien dans la lèpre. In: Sansarricq H (ed) La lèpre. Ellipses, p 226
Talhari S, Ameen M (2012) Drugs in leprosy. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Springer, Milan, p 281
Kar HK, Gupta R (2015) Treatment of leprosy. Clin Dermatol 33:55
Noordeen SK (2016) History of chemotherapy of leprosy. Clin Dermatol 34:32
Faget GH (1947) Chemotherapy of leprosy. Int J Lepr 15:7
Colman MD (1993) Dapsone: mode of action, toxicity and possible strategies for increasing patient tolerance. Br J Dermatol 129:507
Anderson R (1985) Enhancement by clofazimine and inhibition by dapsone of production of prostaglandin E2 by human polymorfonuclear leucocytes in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 27:257
Campbell EA, Korzheva N, Mustaev A et al (2011) Structural mechanism for rifampicin inhibition of bacterial RNA polymerase. Cell 104:901
Meneghini CL, Trimigliozzi G, Angelini G et al (1970) La rifampicina nel trattamento della lebbra lepromatosa. Osservazioni su 57 casi. Simposi Scientifici Lepetit 28:169
Trimigliozzi G, Angelini G, Lospalluti M et al (1973) Rilievi clinico-sperimentali nella lebbra lepromatosa trattata con rifampicina. Ann It Dermatol Cl Sperim 27:261
Meneghini CL, Angelini G, Lospalluti M (1987) Lebbra. In: Serri F (ed) Trattato di dermatologia, Vol II, cap 36. Piccin, Padova
WHO Study Group (1994) Chemotherapy of leprosy. World Health Organization, Geneva, Technical Report Series no 847
Allen HB, Moschella SL (2017) The role of rifampin in leprosy. JAMA Dermatol 8. doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2016.5506
Singh R, Ray P, Das A et al (2010) Penetration of antibiotics through Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. J Antimicrob Chemother 65:1955
Saunderson PR (2016) Drug-resistant M. leprae. Clin Dermatol 34:79
Pearson J, Haile G, Rees R (1977) Primary dapsone-resistant leprosy. Lepr Rev 48:129
Singh P, Cole ST (2011) Mycobacterium leprae: genes, pseudogenes and genetic diversity. Future Mycrobiol 6:57
World Health Organization (1982) WHO Technical Report Series 675, Geneva
Bobin P (2012) Treatment and prophylaxis. In: Nunzi E, Massone C (eds) Leprosy. A practical guide. Springer, Milan, p 287
Grosset JH, Ji B, Guelpa-Lauras CC et al (1990) Clinical trial of pefloxacin and ofloxacin in the treatment of lepromatous leprosy. Int J Lepr 58:281
Ji B, Peroni EG, Petinon C et al (1996) Bactericidal activities of combination of news drugs against M. leprae in nude mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 40:393
Girdhar BK, Girdhar A. Short course treatment of leprosy: present status. Avaible at http://icmr.nic.in/bufeb02.pdf
Leprosy-new drug regimens. http://www.who.int/tdr/research/progress/9900/methods-treatment/en/index5.html
Brandsma JW (2016) Rehabilitation of leprosy-affected people: an overview. Clin Dermatol 34:66
Sharma P, Kar HK, Misra RS (2000) Reactional states and neuritis in multibacillary patients following MDT with/without immunotherapy with Mw anti-leprosy vaccine. Lepr Rev 71:193
Gupte MD, Vallishayee RS, Anantharan DS et al (1998) Comparative leprosy vaccine trial in South India. Indian J Lepr 70:369
Truoc LV, Ly HM, Thuy NK et al (2001) Vaccination against leprosy at Ben San Leprosy Centre, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Vaccine 19:3451
Setia MS, Steinmaus C, Ho CS et al (2006) The role of BCG in prevention of leprosy: a meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 6:162
Zodpey SP (2007) Protective effect of bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine in the prevention of leprosy: a meta-analysis. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 73:86
Duppre NC, Camacho LA, da Cunha SS et al (2008) Effectiveness of BCG vaccination among leprosy contacts: a cohort study. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 102:631
Pannikar V (2009) Enhanced global strategy for further reducing the disease burden due to leprosy: 2011–2015. Lepr Rev 80:353
Smith C, Richardus JH (2008) Leprosy strategy is about control, not eradication. Lancet 371:969
Rodriguez LC, Lockwood DN (2011) Leprosy now: epidemiology, progress, challenges, and research gaps. Lancet Infect Dis 11:464
Fischer EA, de Vlas SJ, Habbema JD et al (2011) The long-term effect of current and new interventions on the new case detection of leprosy: a modeling study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5:e1330
Oskan L, Slim E, Buhrer-Sekula S (2003) Serology: recent developments, strengths, limitations and prospects: a state of the art overview. Lepr Rev 74:196
Moura RS, Calado KL, Oliveira ML et al (2008) Leprosy serology using PGL-I; a systemic review. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 41(Suppl 2):11
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bonamonte, D., Filoni, A., Verni, P., Romita, P., Angelini, G. (2017). Leprosy. In: Bonamonte, D., Angelini, G. (eds) Mycobacterial Skin Infections. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48538-6_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-48538-6_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-48537-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-48538-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)