Abstract
There is now substantial evidence that both humans and nonhuman mammals can control offspring sex ratios in response to environmental and social conditions. Yet, because these species utilize a strict system of genetic sex determination, the mechanisms by which mammals may control offspring sex ratios remain elusive. There is evidence that manipulation of offspring sex ratios may occur both before and after fertilization in mammals. As a result, there are many potential targets that could allow for either influences over which sex is initially produced and/or which sex ultimately survives to birth. In this chapter, I will review the many developmental time points during which manipulation of offspring sex ratios could take place in mammals.
And yet, in each human coupling, a thousand million sperm vie for a single egg. Multiply those odds by countless generations, against the odds of your ancestors being alive; meeting; siring this precise son; that exact daughter…
Alan Moore
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aitken RJ, Krausz C (2001) Oxidative stress, DNA damage and the Y chromosome. Reproduction 122(4):497–506
Almiñana C, Caballero I, Heath PR, Maleki-Dizaji S, Parrilla I, Cuello C, Gil MA, Vazquez JL, Vazquez JM, Roca J (2014) The battle of the sexes starts in the oviduct: modulation of oviductal transcriptome by X and Y-bearing spermatozoa. BMC Genomics 15(1):1
Benendo F (1970) The problem of sex determination in the light of personal observations. Polish Endocrinol 21(200):1954
Carson SA (1988) Sex selection: the ultimate in family planning. Fertil Steril 50(1):16
Catalano R, Bruckner T, Smith KR (2008) Ambient temperature predicts sex ratios and male longevity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(6):2244–2247
Catalano R, Bruckner T, Marks AR, Eskenazi B (2006) Exogenous shocks to the human sex ratio: the case of September 11, 2001 in New York City. Hum Reprod 21(12):3127–3131
Chaudhury I, Jain M, Halder A (2014) Sperm sex ratio (X: Y Ratio) and its variations. Austin J Reprod Med Infertil 1(1):7
Cui K-H (1997) Size differences between human X and Y spermatozoa and prefertilization diagnosis. Mol Hum Reprod 3(1):61–67
Diasio RB, Glass R (1971) Effects of pH on the migration of X and Y sperm. Fertil Steril 22(5):303–305
Ericsson RJ (1982) Method of increasing the incidence of female offspring. Google Patents
Ericsson RJ (1994) Sex selection: sex selection via albumin columns: 20 years of results. Hum Reprod 9(10):1787–1788
Flint APF, Albon SD, Jafar SI (1997) Blastocyst development and conceptus sex selection in red deer Cervus elaphus: studies of a free-living population on the Isle of Rum. Gen Comp Endocrinol 106(3):374–383
Fox C, Meldrum S, Watson B (1973) Continuous measurement by radio-telemetry of vaginal pH during human coitus. J Reprod Fertil 33(1):69–75
García-Herreros M, Bermejo-Álvarez P, Rizos D, Gutiérrez-Adán A, Fahey AG, Lonergan P (2010) Intrafollicular testosterone concentration and sex ratio in individually cultured bovine embryos. Reprod Fertil Dev 22(3):533–538
Grant VJ, Chamley LW (2010) Can mammalian mothers influence the sex of their offspring peri-conceptually? Reproduction 140(3):425–433
Grant VJ, Irwin R (2005) Follicular fluid steroid levels and subsequent sex of bovine embryos. J Exp Zool A Comp Exp Biol 303(12):1120–1125
Graves JAM (1995) The origin and function of the mammalian Y chromosome and Y-borne genes–an evolving understanding. Bioessays 17(4):311–320
Guerrero R (1974) Association of the type and time of insemination within the menstrual cycle with the human sex ratio at birth. N Engl J Med 291(20):1056–1059
Guerrero R (1975) Type and time of insemination within the menstrual cycle and the human sex ratio at birth. Stud Fam Plan 6(10):367–371
Gutiérrez-Adán A, Oter M, Martínez-Madrid B, Pintado B, De La Fuente J (2000) Differential expression of two genes located on the X chromosome between male and female in vitro–produced bovine embryos at the blastocyst stage. Mol Reprod Dev 55(2):146–151
Gutiérrez-Adán A, Perez-Crespo M, Fernandez-Gonzalez R, Ramirez M, Moreira P, Pintado B, Lonergan P, Rizos D (2006) Developmental consequences of sexual dimorphism during pre-implantation embryonic development. Reprod Domest Anim 41(s2):54–62
Helle S, Laaksonen T, Adamsson A, Paranko J, Huitu O (2008) Female field voles with high testosterone and glucose levels produce male-biased litters. Anim Behav 75(3):1031–1039
Holt W, Fazeli A (2016) Sperm selection in the female mammalian reproductive tract. Focus on the oviduct: Hypotheses, mechanisms, and new opportunities. Theriogenology 85(1):105–112
Ideta A, Hayama K, Kawashima C, Urakawa M, Miyamoto A, Aoyagi Y (2009) Subjecting holstein heifers to stress during the follicular phase following superovulatory treatment may increase the female sex ratio of embryos. J Reprod Dev 55(5):529–533
Ishijima S, Okuno M, Mohri H (1991) Zeta potential of human X-and Y-bearing sperm. Int J Androl 14(5):340–347
James WH (2000) Analysing data on the sex ratio of human births by cycle day of conception. Hum Reprod 15(5):1206–1208
Jongbloet P (2003) The male disadvantage and the seasonal rhythm of sex ratio at the time of conception. Hum Reprod 18(11):2491–2492
Kobayashi S, Isotani A, Mise N, Yamamoto M, Fujihara Y, Kaseda K, Nakanishi T, Ikawa M, Hamada H, Abe K (2006) Comparison of gene expression in male and female mouse blastocysts revealed imprinting of the X-linked gene, Rhox5/Pem, at preimplantation stages. Curr Biol 16(2):166–172
Larson MA, Kimura K, Kubisch HM, Roberts RM (2001) Sexual dimorphism among bovine embryos in their ability to make the transition to expanded blastocyst and in the expression of the signaling molecule IFN-τ. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98(17):9677–9682
Macaulay AD, Hamilton CK, King WA, Bartlewski PM (2013) Influence of physiological concentrations of androgens on the developmental competence and sex ratio of in vitro produced bovine embryos. Reprod Biol 13(1):41–50
Martin JF (1997) Length of the follicular phase, time of insemination, coital rate and the sex of offspring. Hum Reprod 12(3):611–616
Masters W (1960) Influence of male ejaculate on vaginal acidity. In: Endocrine dysfunction and infertility, pp 76–78
McClung CE (1902) The accessory chromosome—sex determinant? Biol Bull 3(1–2):43–84
Moein-Vaziri N, Phillips I, Smith S, Almiňana C, Maside C, Gil MA, Roca J, Martinez EA, Holt WV, Pockley AG (2014) Heat-shock protein A8 restores sperm membrane integrity by increasing plasma membrane fluidity. Reproduction 147(5):719–732
Moghissi KS (1966) Cyclic changes of cervical mucus in normal and progestin-treated women. Fertil Steril 17(5):663–675
Muschat M (1926) The effect of variation of hydrogen-ion concentration on the motility of human spermatozoa. Surg Gynecol Obstet 42:778–781
Navara KJ (2009) Humans at tropical latitudes produce more females. Biol Lett 5(4):524–527
Navara KJ (2010) Programming of offspring sex ratios by maternal stress in humans: assessment of physiological mechanisms using a comparative approach. J Comp Physiol B 180(6):785–796
Orzack SH, Stubblefield JW, Akmaev VR, Colls P, Munné S, Scholl T, Steinsaltz D, Zuckerman JE (2015) The human sex ratio from conception to birth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112(16):E2102–E2111
Pérez-Crespo M, Ramirez M, Fernández-González R, Rizos D, Lonergan P, Pintado B, Gutiérrez-Adán A (2005) Differential sensitivity of male and female mouse embryos to oxidative induced heat-stress is mediated by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase gene expression. Mol Reprod Dev 72(4):502–510
Pyrzak R (1994) Sex selection: separation of X-and Y-bearing human spermatozoa using albumin gradients. Hum Reprod 9(10):1788–1790
Ray P, Conaghan J, Winston R, Handyside A (1995) Increased number of cells and metabolic activity in male human preimplantation embryos following in vitro fertilization. J Reprod Fertil 104(1):165–171
Robbins WA, Wei F, Elashoff DA, Wu G, Xun L, Jia J (2008) Y: X sperm ratio in boron-exposed men. J Androl 29(1):115–121
Rohde W, Porstmann T, Doerner G (1973) Migration of Y-bearing human spermatozoa in cervical mucus. J Reprod Fertil 33(1):167–169
Ross MT, Grafham DV, Coffey AJ, Scherer S, McLay K, Muzny D, Platzer M, Howell GR, Burrows C, Bird CP (2005) The DNA sequence of the human X chromosome. Nature 434(7031):325–337
Saragusty J, Hermes R, Hofer H, Bouts T, Göritz F, Hildebrandt TB (2012) Male pygmy hippopotamus influence offspring sex ratio. Nat Commun 3:697
Seguy B (1974) [Methods of natural and voluntary sex selection. Value for the prevention of sex-linked malformations and of certain recurrent abortions]. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod 4(1):145–149
Shettles LB (1960a) Human spermatozoa shape in relation to sex ratios. Fertil Steril 12:502–508
Shettles LB (1960b) Nuclear morphology of human spermatozoa. Obstet Gynecol 16(1):10
Shettles LB, Rorvik DM (2006) How to choose the sex of your baby: the method best supported by scientific evidence. Harmony Books, New York
Stolkowski J, Choukroun J (1981) Preconception selection of sex in man. Isr J Med Sci 17(11):1061–1067
Tiido T, Rignell-Hydbom A, Jönsson B, Giwercman YL, Rylander L, Hagmar L, Giwercman A (2005) Exposure to persistent organochlorine pollutants associates with human sperm Y: X chromosome ratio. Hum Reprod 20(7):1903–1909
Trivers RL, Willard DE (1973) Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring. Science 179(4068):90–92
Unterberger F (1930) Das problem der willkürlichen Beeinflussung des Geschlechts beim Menschen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 56(08):304–307
Whelan EM (1977) Boy or girl? The sex selection technique that makes all others obsolete. Bobbs‐Merrill, New York
Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, Baird DD (1995) Timing of sexual intercourse in relation to ovulation—effects on the probability of conception, survival of the pregnancy, and sex of the baby. N Engl J Med 333(23):1517–1521
Zarutskie PW, Muller CH, Magone M, Soules MR (1989) The clinical relevance of sex selection techniques. Fertil Steril 52(6):891–905
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Navara, K.J. (2018). Potential Mechanisms of Sex Ratio Adjustment in Humans and Nonhuman Mammals. In: Choosing Sexes. Fascinating Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71271-0_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71271-0_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-71269-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-71271-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)