Shrimp Culture: Culture of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 11
Dr. T. K. GhoshDr. T. K. Ghosh
Department ofDepartment of
AquacultureAquaculture
Faculty of FisheryFaculty of Fishery
SciencesSciences
CULTURE OF TIGERCULTURE OF TIGER
SHRIMPSHRIMP
(Penaeus monodon)(Penaeus monodon)

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 22
Introduction:Introduction:
Penaeus monodonPenaeus monodon (common names include(common names include giant tiger prawngiant tiger prawn,,
black tiger prawnblack tiger prawn,, leader prawnleader prawn,, sugposugpo andand grass prawngrass prawn) is a) is a
marine crustacean that is widely reared for food.marine crustacean that is widely reared for food.
 DISTRIBUTION:DISTRIBUTION:
The natural distribution is Indo – West - pacific, rangingThe natural distribution is Indo – West - pacific, ranging
from the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, asfrom the eastern coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, as
far as South-east Asia, and the Sea of Japan. They can also befar as South-east Asia, and the Sea of Japan. They can also be
found in eastern Australia, and a small number havefound in eastern Australia, and a small number have
colonised the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal. Furthercolonised the Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal. Further
invasive populations have become established in Hawaiiinvasive populations have become established in Hawaii
and the Atlantic coast of the USA (Florida, Georgia andand the Atlantic coast of the USA (Florida, Georgia and
South Carolina).South Carolina).
Both sexes reach approximately 36 cm long, and femalesBoth sexes reach approximately 36 cm long, and females
can weigh up to 650 g, making it the world's largest speciescan weigh up to 650 g, making it the world's largest species
of prawn.of prawn.
P. monodonP. monodon is the most widely cultured prawn species in the world.is the most widely cultured prawn species in the world.
Over 900,000 tonnes are consumed annually, two-thirds of it comingOver 900,000 tonnes are consumed annually, two-thirds of it coming
from farming, chiefly in south-east Asia.from farming, chiefly in south-east Asia.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 33
Kingdom: AnimaliaKingdom: Animalia
Phylum: ArthropodaPhylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: CrustaceaSubphylum: Crustacea
Class: MalacostracaClass: Malacostraca
Order: DecapodaOrder: Decapoda
Suborder: DendrobranchiataSuborder: Dendrobranchiata
Family: PenaeidaeFamily: Penaeidae
Genus:Genus: PenaeusPenaeus
Species:Species: P. mo no do nP. mo no do n
Common name: BLACK TIGER SHRIMPCommon name: BLACK TIGER SHRIMP
Classification:Classification:

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SHRIMP FARM:SHRIMP FARM:
AA shrimp farmshrimp farm is an aquaculture business foris an aquaculture business for
the cultivation of marine shrimp or prawn forthe cultivation of marine shrimp or prawn for
human consumption. Commercial shrimp farminghuman consumption. Commercial shrimp farming
began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply,began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply,
particularly to match the market demands of theparticularly to match the market demands of the
U.S., Japan and Western Europe.U.S., Japan and Western Europe.
The total global production of farmed shrimpThe total global production of farmed shrimp
reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003,reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003,
representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S.representing a value of nearly 9,000 million U.S.
dollars.dollars.
About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced inAbout 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in
Asia, in particular in China and Thailand.Asia, in particular in China and Thailand.
The other 25% is produced mainly in LatinThe other 25% is produced mainly in Latin
America, where Brazil is the largest producer.America, where Brazil is the largest producer.
The largest exporting nation is Thailand.The largest exporting nation is Thailand.

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IDENTIFICATION:IDENTIFICATION:
The giant tiger prawn inhabits the coasts of Australia, SouthThe giant tiger prawn inhabits the coasts of Australia, South
East Asia, South Asia and East Africa. Similar to all penaeid shrimp,East Asia, South Asia and East Africa. Similar to all penaeid shrimp,
the rostrum well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally.the rostrum well developed and toothed dorsally and ventrally.
Carapace without longitudinal or transverse sutures. CervicalCarapace without longitudinal or transverse sutures. Cervical
and orbito-antennal sulci and antennal carnage always present.and orbito-antennal sulci and antennal carnage always present.
Hepatic and antennal spines pronounced. The most distinctHepatic and antennal spines pronounced. The most distinct
features for identification of this species are: fifth pereiopodsfeatures for identification of this species are: fifth pereiopods
without exopod; hepatic carina horizontally straight; andwithout exopod; hepatic carina horizontally straight; and
gastroorbital carina occupying the posterior half of the distancegastroorbital carina occupying the posterior half of the distance
between hepatic spine and postorbital margin of carapace.between hepatic spine and postorbital margin of carapace.
Depending on substratum, feed and water turbidity, bodyDepending on substratum, feed and water turbidity, body
colours vary from green, brown, red, grey, blue and transverse bandcolours vary from green, brown, red, grey, blue and transverse band
colours on abdomen and carapace are alternated between blue orcolours on abdomen and carapace are alternated between blue or
black and yellow.black and yellow.
Adults may reach 33 cm in length and females are commonlyAdults may reach 33 cm in length and females are commonly
larger than males.larger than males.

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AnatomyAnatomy

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VarietyVariety

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Back ground:Back ground:
Shrimp farming has been practiced for more than aShrimp farming has been practiced for more than a
century for food and the livelihood of coastal people in somecentury for food and the livelihood of coastal people in some
Asian countries, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, TaiwanAsian countries, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan
Province of China, Thailand and Vietnam.Province of China, Thailand and Vietnam.
Penaeus monodon was originally harvested together withPenaeus monodon was originally harvested together with
other shrimp species from traditional trapping-growingother shrimp species from traditional trapping-growing
ponds or as a significant by-product of extensive milkfishponds or as a significant by-product of extensive milkfish
ponds but in the year 1988, P. monodon was recognized asponds but in the year 1988, P. monodon was recognized as
the world's leading producer of farm-raised aquaticthe world's leading producer of farm-raised aquatic
organisms.organisms.
Later, the culture of this species spread throughoutLater, the culture of this species spread throughout
southeast and south Asia, as it can grow-up to a large sizesoutheast and south Asia, as it can grow-up to a large size
(40-60 g) with high value and demand in the international(40-60 g) with high value and demand in the international
market.market.

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Contd…Contd…
The locally adapted culture technology hasThe locally adapted culture technology has
allowed Thai farmers to overcome serious disease,allowed Thai farmers to overcome serious disease,
environmental and trade problems and maintain itsenvironmental and trade problems and maintain its
status as a leading producer.status as a leading producer.
The introduction or importation of wild broodThe introduction or importation of wild brood
stock is commonly practiced among the majorstock is commonly practiced among the major
producing countries because local supplies areproducing countries because local supplies are
insufficient and domestication technology has notinsufficient and domestication technology has not
yet been commercially developed. However,yet been commercially developed. However,
disease-free brood stock are highly desirable anddisease-free brood stock are highly desirable and
some countries require health certification ofsome countries require health certification of
imported stock.imported stock.

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Main producer countriesMain producer countries ::

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Habitat and biology :Habitat and biology :
Penaeus monodon mature and breed only in tropicalPenaeus monodon mature and breed only in tropical
marine habitats and spend their larval, juvenile, adolescent andmarine habitats and spend their larval, juvenile, adolescent and
sub-adult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas.sub-adult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas.
In the wild, they show marked nocturnal activity,In the wild, they show marked nocturnal activity,
burrowing into bottom substratum during the day and emergingburrowing into bottom substratum during the day and emerging
at night to search for food as benthic feeders.at night to search for food as benthic feeders.
Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of aUnder natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of a
predator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder thanpredator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than
other penaeid shrimp. After moulting, the new shell is still softother penaeid shrimp. After moulting, the new shell is still soft
which causes prawns to become vulnerable and they maywhich causes prawns to become vulnerable and they may
subsequently be eaten by their predators or companions. Adultssubsequently be eaten by their predators or companions. Adults
are often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20-50 mare often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20-50 m
depth in offshore waters. Wild males posses spermatozoa fromdepth in offshore waters. Wild males posses spermatozoa from
around 35 g body weight and females becomes gravid from 70 g.around 35 g body weight and females becomes gravid from 70 g.
Mating occurs at night, shortly after moulting while theMating occurs at night, shortly after moulting while the
cuticle is still soft, and sperm are subsequently kept in acuticle is still soft, and sperm are subsequently kept in a
spermatophore (sac) inserted inside the closed thelycum of thespermatophore (sac) inserted inside the closed thelycum of the
female.female.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 1212
cont…cont…
There are five stages in ovarian maturation; undeveloped, developing;There are five stages in ovarian maturation; undeveloped, developing;
nearly ripe; ripe; and spent. P. monodon females are highly fecund with gravidnearly ripe; ripe; and spent. P. monodon females are highly fecund with gravid
females producing as many as 500 000 to 750 000 eggs.females producing as many as 500 000 to 750 000 eggs.
Spawning occurs at night and fertilization is external with femalesSpawning occurs at night and fertilization is external with females
suddenly extruding sperm from the thelycum as eggs are laid in offshore waters.suddenly extruding sperm from the thelycum as eggs are laid in offshore waters.
Hatching occurs 12-15 hours after fertilization. The larvae, termed nauplii, areHatching occurs 12-15 hours after fertilization. The larvae, termed nauplii, are
free swimming and resemble tiny aquatic spiders. This first stage in larvalfree swimming and resemble tiny aquatic spiders. This first stage in larval
development does not feed but lives on its yolk reserve and passes rapidlydevelopment does not feed but lives on its yolk reserve and passes rapidly
through six moults. The next larval stages [protozoea, mysis and earlythrough six moults. The next larval stages [protozoea, mysis and early
postlarvae (PL) respectively] remain planktonic for some time and are carriedpostlarvae (PL) respectively] remain planktonic for some time and are carried
towards the shore by tidal currents.towards the shore by tidal currents.
Protozoea, which have feathery appendages and elongated bodies,Protozoea, which have feathery appendages and elongated bodies,
moult three times and then metamorphose into the mysis stage. Mysis, whichmoult three times and then metamorphose into the mysis stage. Mysis, which
have segmented bodies, eyestalk and tails characteristic of adult shrimp, alsohave segmented bodies, eyestalk and tails characteristic of adult shrimp, also
moult three times before metamorphosing into PL with similar characteristicsmoult three times before metamorphosing into PL with similar characteristics
to adult shrimp.to adult shrimp.
The PL subsequently change their habit to feed on benthic detritus,The PL subsequently change their habit to feed on benthic detritus,
polychaete worms and small crustaceans after PL 6. Juvenile and adolescentpolychaete worms and small crustaceans after PL 6. Juvenile and adolescent
stages can tolerate salinity conditions as low as 1-2 ‰.stages can tolerate salinity conditions as low as 1-2 ‰.

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LIFE HISTORYLIFE HISTORY ::
 The life history of the tiger prawn may beThe life history of the tiger prawn may be
divided into six phases. The first, the embryodivided into six phases. The first, the embryo
phase, is planktonic/benthic and lasts only 12-14phase, is planktonic/benthic and lasts only 12-14
hours.hours.
 The second, the larval phase, is planktonic andThe second, the larval phase, is planktonic and
lasts approximately 20 days.lasts approximately 20 days.
 Aspects of the next four phases – juvenile,Aspects of the next four phases – juvenile,
adolescent, sub-adult and adult are shown inadolescent, sub-adult and adult are shown in
Table-1.Table-1.

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Table-1. The life history phases of the tiger shrimp,Table-1. The life history phases of the tiger shrimp, P. monodonP. monodon
PhasePhase DuratioDuratio
nn
CarapaceCarapace
LengthLength
(CL)(CL)
(mm)(mm)
TotalTotal
LengthLength
(TL) (mm)(TL) (mm)
BodyBody
weightweight
(BW) (g)(BW) (g)
HabitatHabitat
JuvenileJuvenile DayDay
21 - 3521 - 35
2.2 – 112.2 – 11 29 - 5629 - 56 0.02 –0.02 –
1.31.3
EstuarinEstuarin
ee
AdolesceAdolesce
ntnt
MonthMonth
1.2 - 51.2 - 5
11 – 3711 – 37 56 – 13456 – 134 1.3 – 331.3 – 33 EstuarinEstuarin
ee
Sub-Sub-
AdultAdult
MonthMonth
5 - 65 - 6
37 – 4737 – 47 134 – 164134 – 164 33 – 6033 – 60 CoastalCoastal
AdultAdult
(Brood(Brood
stock)stock)
MonthMonth
6 - 246 - 24
47 - 8147 - 81 164 - 266164 - 266 60 - 26160 - 261 InshoreInshore
//
OffshoreOffshore

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EMBRYO AND LARVAL PHASE:EMBRYO AND LARVAL PHASE:
AdultAdult P. monodonP. monodon are believed to spawn predominantly in inshoreare believed to spawn predominantly in inshore
and to a lesser extent in offshore waters. The eggs are spawned by theand to a lesser extent in offshore waters. The eggs are spawned by the
female in the water column and soon after sink towards the bottom. Thefemale in the water column and soon after sink towards the bottom. The
eggs develop through the embryonic phase and hatch out ineggs develop through the embryonic phase and hatch out in
approximately 12-14 hours.approximately 12-14 hours.
The larvae go through 6 naupliar, 3 protozoeal, 3 mysis and 3 or 4The larvae go through 6 naupliar, 3 protozoeal, 3 mysis and 3 or 4
megalopa sub stages, with each sub stage lasting approximately 1.5, 5, 4megalopa sub stages, with each sub stage lasting approximately 1.5, 5, 4
to 5, and 6 to 15 days respectively. The megalopa and early juvenileto 5, and 6 to 15 days respectively. The megalopa and early juvenile
stages are collectively termed postlarvae, or fry for commercial purposes.stages are collectively termed postlarvae, or fry for commercial purposes.
The post larval stage begins on day 1 of the megalopa sub stage. TheThe post larval stage begins on day 1 of the megalopa sub stage. The
larvae remain in the plankton for 2-3 weeks and are believed to migratelarvae remain in the plankton for 2-3 weeks and are believed to migrate
towards estuaries and mangroves. Five-day-old postlarvae (PL5),towards estuaries and mangroves. Five-day-old postlarvae (PL5),
approximately 16 days post-hatch at 29°C, end their planktonic phaseapproximately 16 days post-hatch at 29°C, end their planktonic phase
and settle on the bottom.and settle on the bottom.
At this time postlarvae preferentially grasp and cling to filamentousAt this time postlarvae preferentially grasp and cling to filamentous
matter, grass, twigs and the like which makes them difficult to samplematter, grass, twigs and the like which makes them difficult to sample
accurately. It is believed that they migrate into estuaries and mangrovesaccurately. It is believed that they migrate into estuaries and mangroves
and remain in these nursery grounds until the following summer. Inand remain in these nursery grounds until the following summer. In
northern Queensland recruitment occurs annually as two major seasonalnorthern Queensland recruitment occurs annually as two major seasonal
cohorts – the first from a spawning occurring in late summer/autumncohorts – the first from a spawning occurring in late summer/autumn
(mid-February to April) and the second in spring (late August to(mid-February to April) and the second in spring (late August to
October/November).October/November).

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JUVENILE, ADOLESCENT AND SUB-ADULT PHASE:JUVENILE, ADOLESCENT AND SUB-ADULT PHASE:
In the PhilippinesIn the Philippines P. monodonP. monodon has a juvenile phasehas a juvenile phase
of only 2 weeks before reaching adolescence, usuallyof only 2 weeks before reaching adolescence, usually
around 1.3 g BW (11 mm CL, 56 mm TL), at which timearound 1.3 g BW (11 mm CL, 56 mm TL), at which time
the sexes can first be identified. Little is known ofthe sexes can first be identified. Little is known of
these early stages in Australian waters.these early stages in Australian waters.
Although the 2 inch mesh of commercial trawl netsAlthough the 2 inch mesh of commercial trawl nets
largely excludes capture of these small prawns, andlargely excludes capture of these small prawns, and
given that trawlers rarely attempt or are prohibitedgiven that trawlers rarely attempt or are prohibited
from fishing immediately along the shoreline, collectorsfrom fishing immediately along the shoreline, collectors
in north Queensland nevertheless believe that thesein north Queensland nevertheless believe that these
stages are not found in coastal waters.stages are not found in coastal waters.
Instead they have concluded that juveniles andInstead they have concluded that juveniles and
adolescents use estuarine habitats as their nurseryadolescents use estuarine habitats as their nursery
grounds. Support for their hypothesis comes from baitgrounds. Support for their hypothesis comes from bait
collectors in the Townsville to Cairns area whocollectors in the Townsville to Cairns area who
regularly capture small tiger prawns, 0.25 to 1.8 g BWregularly capture small tiger prawns, 0.25 to 1.8 g BW
(40 - 60 mm TL), in cast nets in mangrove lined(40 - 60 mm TL), in cast nets in mangrove lined
estuaries.estuaries.

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BROOD STOCK AND THE BREEDING CYCLE:BROOD STOCK AND THE BREEDING CYCLE:
Once sub-adults reach sexual maturity theyOnce sub-adults reach sexual maturity they
become brood stock. In the Philippines, males arebecome brood stock. In the Philippines, males are
sexually mature at approximately 33 g BW (37 mmsexually mature at approximately 33 g BW (37 mm
CL, 134 mm TL). At this time spermatophores mayCL, 134 mm TL). At this time spermatophores may
be found in the terminal ampoule, although there isbe found in the terminal ampoule, although there is
a high incidence of immature sperm found in thea high incidence of immature sperm found in the
spermatophore.spermatophore.
In the Philippines and Australia, females areIn the Philippines and Australia, females are
found with spermatophores in their thelycum atfound with spermatophores in their thelycum at
approximately 60 g BW (47 mm CL, 164 mm TL),approximately 60 g BW (47 mm CL, 164 mm TL),
which is assumed to be the size of first sexuallywhich is assumed to be the size of first sexually
maturity. However, most females mature at amaturity. However, most females mature at a
slightly larger size, around 82 to 97 g BW (180 - 190slightly larger size, around 82 to 97 g BW (180 - 190
mm TL), which is the average size of gravid femalesmm TL), which is the average size of gravid females
from the first spawning pulse on the autumnfrom the first spawning pulse on the autumn
grounds in north Queensland.grounds in north Queensland.

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The second spawning season usually commences in lateThe second spawning season usually commences in late
August when water temperature rises above 25°C.August when water temperature rises above 25°C.
At this time it is rare to find any 'previous year's broodAt this time it is rare to find any 'previous year's brood
stock' on the inshore grounds. By this time 'new recruits'stock' on the inshore grounds. By this time 'new recruits'
are around 230 - 240 mm TL, although most of this growthare around 230 - 240 mm TL, although most of this growth
would have occurred during the previous autumn and notwould have occurred during the previous autumn and not
during winter (collectors estimate that no growth occurs forduring winter (collectors estimate that no growth occurs for
up to 3 months during winter).up to 3 months during winter).
Peak egg production during the spring spawning periodPeak egg production during the spring spawning period
occurs during September/October, followed by a suddenoccurs during September/October, followed by a sudden
'disappearance' of brood stock anytime from October'disappearance' of brood stock anytime from October
onwards. This 'disappearance' of brood stock from trawlonwards. This 'disappearance' of brood stock from trawl
catches marks the end of the spring spawning after whichcatches marks the end of the spring spawning after which
very few brood stock are caught on the inshore groundsvery few brood stock are caught on the inshore grounds
until late summer the following year.until late summer the following year.

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 Figure: A proposed life history pattern forFigure: A proposed life history pattern for PenaeusPenaeus
monodonmonodon in North Queensland.in North Queensland.

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Breeding and post larvae production:Breeding and post larvae production:
 Prawn larvae are produced in hatcheries which usePrawn larvae are produced in hatcheries which use
wild caught spawners or brood stock collected mainlywild caught spawners or brood stock collected mainly
from the coastal waters between Cooktown andfrom the coastal waters between Cooktown and
Innisfail.Innisfail.
 The majority of these spawners are gonadally matureThe majority of these spawners are gonadally mature
and when they are transferred to the hatchery theyand when they are transferred to the hatchery they
either spawn spontaneously or are induced througheither spawn spontaneously or are induced through
the use of eyestalk ablation. Each spawner willthe use of eyestalk ablation. Each spawner will
produce between 200 000 and 500 000 eggs. Theproduce between 200 000 and 500 000 eggs. The
eggs are hatched and pass through a number of larvaleggs are hatched and pass through a number of larval
stages until they reach the post larvae (PL) stage.stages until they reach the post larvae (PL) stage.
 The PLs are normally sold to the grow out farms forThe PLs are normally sold to the grow out farms for
stocking ponds when they are 15 to 20 days old. Thestocking ponds when they are 15 to 20 days old. The
quality of the PLs will vary between spawners and thequality of the PLs will vary between spawners and the
time of the year the spawners are collected.time of the year the spawners are collected.

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Production cycle in farms:Production cycle in farms:

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Smaller indoor concrete tanks (4-5 tonnes)Smaller indoor concrete tanks (4-5 tonnes)
than those originally used have now provedthan those originally used have now proved
more efficient and manageable for larvalmore efficient and manageable for larval
rearing, particularly during the application ofrearing, particularly during the application of
closed systems for disease prevention. If anclosed systems for disease prevention. If an
outdoor system is unavoidable, due to economicoutdoor system is unavoidable, due to economic
constraints, tanks should be covered by blackconstraints, tanks should be covered by black
cloth or roof tiles in order to avoid the diurnalcloth or roof tiles in order to avoid the diurnal
fluctuation of water temperature, and also tofluctuation of water temperature, and also to
reduce light intensity.reduce light intensity.
Nauplii are usually stocked at 100Nauplii are usually stocked at 100
000/tonne and cultured up to late mysis or000/tonne and cultured up to late mysis or
early PL with approximately 70-80 percentearly PL with approximately 70-80 percent
survival rate. They are then transferred to asurvival rate. They are then transferred to a
new tank and cultured up to PL 12-15; anew tank and cultured up to PL 12-15; a
further 70-80 percent survival rate is achievedfurther 70-80 percent survival rate is achieved
in this stage.in this stage.
Diatoms (either Chaetoceros, orDiatoms (either Chaetoceros, or
Skeletonema or Tetraselmis) that have beenSkeletonema or Tetraselmis) that have been
-HATCHERY--HATCHERY-

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2323
Contd…Contd…
Diatoms can be replaced by micro-Diatoms can be replaced by micro-
encapsulated diets or dry formulatedencapsulated diets or dry formulated
feeds if their production is interruptedfeeds if their production is interrupted
by rain. Artemia nauplii, at an averageby rain. Artemia nauplii, at an average
of 50 g of cysts per 100 000 larvae areof 50 g of cysts per 100 000 larvae are
given from mysis up to early PL stage.given from mysis up to early PL stage.
Artemia flakes are also used toArtemia flakes are also used to
supplement Artemia nauplii for costsupplement Artemia nauplii for cost
reduction. From PL 4 to PL 15,reduction. From PL 4 to PL 15,
artificial diets are commonly used toartificial diets are commonly used to
reduce the deterioration in waterreduce the deterioration in water
quality that occurs when fresh feed isquality that occurs when fresh feed is
applied. From hatching, it takes aboutapplied. From hatching, it takes about

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2424
NURSERY:NURSERY:
Due to its benthic habit, the harvesting of nursed juveniles inDue to its benthic habit, the harvesting of nursed juveniles in
separate earthen ponds is difficult; thus nursing of hatcheryseparate earthen ponds is difficult; thus nursing of hatchery
produced postlarvae is impractical. Nursing in concrete tanks alsoproduced postlarvae is impractical. Nursing in concrete tanks also
yields poor survival, due to the cannibalistic behaviour of PL atyields poor survival, due to the cannibalistic behaviour of PL at
high stocking densities. Since intensive ponds are well treated tohigh stocking densities. Since intensive ponds are well treated to
eliminate all fish predators, it is safe to stock PL 15 prawns directlyeliminate all fish predators, it is safe to stock PL 15 prawns directly
into the grow-out ponds.into the grow-out ponds.
If the pond has not been well-prepared in time, or someIf the pond has not been well-prepared in time, or some
predators have been observed, or the PL seem weak, PL 15 may bepredators have been observed, or the PL seem weak, PL 15 may be
acclimatized by impoundment in nets, pens or small enclosureacclimatized by impoundment in nets, pens or small enclosure
within grow-out ponds for less than a week before release.within grow-out ponds for less than a week before release.
In semi-intensive ponds, where postlarvae are not fully fed byIn semi-intensive ponds, where postlarvae are not fully fed by
artificial diets and some fish predators still remain, postlarvae areartificial diets and some fish predators still remain, postlarvae are
commonly nursed for a few weeks in an earthen compartment (5-commonly nursed for a few weeks in an earthen compartment (5-
10 percent of pond area) within the grow-out ponds.10 percent of pond area) within the grow-out ponds.
This enables the feed to be concentrated in this small nursingThis enables the feed to be concentrated in this small nursing
area, resulting in juveniles that are larger and thus better able toarea, resulting in juveniles that are larger and thus better able to
escape from the remaining fish predators after release into theescape from the remaining fish predators after release into the
grow-out pond.grow-out pond.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2525
Lime in pondLime in pond
Lime application to pond bottom Liming on water surface

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2626
Seed supplySeed supply ::
Due to their larger size and better survival,Due to their larger size and better survival,
captured wild seeds were used commonly incaptured wild seeds were used commonly in
south Asia for extensive ponds, which requiresouth Asia for extensive ponds, which require
a minimal amount of seed for stocking.a minimal amount of seed for stocking.
However, the use of wild seeds has beenHowever, the use of wild seeds has been
reduced, due to overfishing and the outbreakreduced, due to overfishing and the outbreak
of white spot disease in shrimp nurseryof white spot disease in shrimp nursery
grounds. Therefore most Penaeus monodongrounds. Therefore most Penaeus monodon
grow-out farms now rely solely on hatchery-grow-out farms now rely solely on hatchery-
produced seeds.produced seeds.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2727
Culture environment :Culture environment :
The species occurs in the coastal waters ofThe species occurs in the coastal waters of
Queensland and can grow quickly under a wideQueensland and can grow quickly under a wide
range of salinities. Maximum growth rates arerange of salinities. Maximum growth rates are
achieved in 15 to 20 parts per thousand (ppt)achieved in 15 to 20 parts per thousand (ppt)
salinity - seawater is normally 35 ppt. Prawns cansalinity - seawater is normally 35 ppt. Prawns can
survive in zero salinity (freshwater) for shortsurvive in zero salinity (freshwater) for short
periods.periods.
As they are a tropical prawn their best growthAs they are a tropical prawn their best growth
rates occur when water temperatures arerates occur when water temperatures are 25°C25°Cto 30to 30
°C°C. Feeding stops at around 20 deg C and death will. Feeding stops at around 20 deg C and death will
occur aroundoccur around 14°Cto 15°C.14°Cto 15°C. This temperature rangeThis temperature range
limits production to one crop during summer inlimits production to one crop during summer in
areas south of Mackay and two crops can beareas south of Mackay and two crops can be
obtained between Cardwell and Cooktown usingobtained between Cardwell and Cooktown using
good management, controlled stocking rates andgood management, controlled stocking rates and
selective harvesting.selective harvesting.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2828
Contd…Contd…
The higher the stocking densities the slower theThe higher the stocking densities the slower the
growth rates. With water temperatures above 24growth rates. With water temperatures above 24°C°C
prawns should reach 30 to 35 grams each in 130 toprawns should reach 30 to 35 grams each in 130 to
150 days.150 days.
Prawns are normally grown in purpose builtPrawns are normally grown in purpose built
earthen ponds adjacent to the estuarine parts ofearthen ponds adjacent to the estuarine parts of
river systems. Most ponds are approximately oneriver systems. Most ponds are approximately one
hectare in size, having a gently sloping bottom tohectare in size, having a gently sloping bottom to
allow the drain harvest of the prawns and to allowallow the drain harvest of the prawns and to allow
full draining for a dry-out period between crops.full draining for a dry-out period between crops.
Pond depths vary from 1.5 to 2.0 metres.Pond depths vary from 1.5 to 2.0 metres.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 2929
- ONGROWING TECHNIQUE -- ONGROWING TECHNIQUE -
There are three on-growing cultureThere are three on-growing culture
practices: extensive, semi-intensive andpractices: extensive, semi-intensive and
intensive, which represent low, medium, andintensive, which represent low, medium, and
high stocking densities respectively.high stocking densities respectively.
Due to its benthic feeding habit PenaeusDue to its benthic feeding habit Penaeus
monodon is commercially cultured only inmonodon is commercially cultured only in
earthen ponds, under widely varyingearthen ponds, under widely varying
salinities from 2 to 30‰.salinities from 2 to 30‰.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3030
Extensive Farming:Extensive Farming:
 Commonly found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia,Commonly found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia,
Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam, extensive grow-Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam, extensive grow-
out of shrimp is conducted in tidal areas where waterout of shrimp is conducted in tidal areas where water
pumping is unnecessary. Shrimp feed on natural foodspumping is unnecessary. Shrimp feed on natural foods
that enter the pond regularly on the tide and arethat enter the pond regularly on the tide and are
subsequently enhanced by organic or chemical fertilizers.subsequently enhanced by organic or chemical fertilizers.
 If available, fresh fish or molluscs may be used asIf available, fresh fish or molluscs may be used as
supplementary feed. Due to the low stocking densities,supplementary feed. Due to the low stocking densities,
larger sized shrimp (>50 g) are commonly harvestedlarger sized shrimp (>50 g) are commonly harvested
within six months or more.within six months or more.
 The yield is lowest in these extensive systems, at 50-500The yield is lowest in these extensive systems, at 50-500
kg/ha/yr. Due to the increase in land costs and thekg/ha/yr. Due to the increase in land costs and the
shortage of wild seeds, almost no new extensive farmsshortage of wild seeds, almost no new extensive farms
are being constructed today. After gaining experience inare being constructed today. After gaining experience in
shrimp farming, many farmers have upgraded their pondsshrimp farming, many farmers have upgraded their ponds
to semi-intensive systems to provide better incomes.to semi-intensive systems to provide better incomes.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3131
Semi – Intensive Farming :Semi – Intensive Farming :
Semi-intensive ponds (1-5 ha) are commonly stocked withSemi-intensive ponds (1-5 ha) are commonly stocked with
hatchery-produced seeds at the rate of 5 to 20 PL/m². Waterhatchery-produced seeds at the rate of 5 to 20 PL/m². Water
exchange is regularly carried out by tide and supplementedexchange is regularly carried out by tide and supplemented
by pumping. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced byby pumping. The shrimp feed on natural foods enhanced by
pond fertilization, supplemented by artificial diets.pond fertilization, supplemented by artificial diets.
Production yields range from 500 to 4000 kg/ha/yr.Production yields range from 500 to 4000 kg/ha/yr.
Intensive:Intensive:
Intensive farms are commonly located in non-tidal areasIntensive farms are commonly located in non-tidal areas
where ponds can be completely drained and dried beforewhere ponds can be completely drained and dried before
each stocking. This culture system is found in all Penaeuseach stocking. This culture system is found in all Penaeus
monodon producing countries and is commonly practiced inmonodon producing countries and is commonly practiced in
Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Australia. Ponds areThailand, the Philippines, Malaysia and Australia. Ponds are
generally small (0.1 to 1.0 ha) with a square or rectangulargenerally small (0.1 to 1.0 ha) with a square or rectangular
shape. Stocking density ranges from 20 to 60 PL/m². Heavyshape. Stocking density ranges from 20 to 60 PL/m². Heavy
aeration, either powered by diesel engines or electric motors,aeration, either powered by diesel engines or electric motors,
is necessary for internal water circulation and oxygen supplyis necessary for internal water circulation and oxygen supply
for both animals and phytoplanktonfor both animals and phytoplankton..

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3232
The following discussion presents the physico-chemical parameters that affectThe following discussion presents the physico-chemical parameters that affect
shrimp culture operations irrespective of the type of production methodsshrimp culture operations irrespective of the type of production methods
applied.applied.
WATER QUALITY:WATER QUALITY:
The first and foremost important considerationThe first and foremost important consideration
in shrimp cultivation is the water quality. Waterin shrimp cultivation is the water quality. Water
quality should be conducive to good growth of thequality should be conducive to good growth of the
shrimp. Some of the essential qualities of pondshrimp. Some of the essential qualities of pond
water includes temperature, salinity, dissolvedwater includes temperature, salinity, dissolved
oxygen, pH, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassiumoxygen, pH, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
which enhance the growth of algae which serve aswhich enhance the growth of algae which serve as
food.food.
Hydrogen sulfide also affects the growth ofHydrogen sulfide also affects the growth of
shrimps.shrimps.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3333
Temperature affects the growth and survival of shrimps.Temperature affects the growth and survival of shrimps.
The rate of growth increases with temperature, however, higherThe rate of growth increases with temperature, however, higher
temperature causes mortality. Temperatures between 26°C totemperature causes mortality. Temperatures between 26°C to
30°C are considered best in terms of maximum production.30°C are considered best in terms of maximum production.
Temperature above 32°C should be cause of concern. HighTemperature above 32°C should be cause of concern. High
temperature can be avoided by deepening of ponds, watertemperature can be avoided by deepening of ponds, water
exchange and aeration.exchange and aeration.
Salinity:Salinity:
Young shrimps can tolerate wide range of salinity.Young shrimps can tolerate wide range of salinity.
However, very little is known of the salinity tolerance of sub-However, very little is known of the salinity tolerance of sub-
adult and adult shrimp. It is observed thatadult and adult shrimp. It is observed that P. monodonP. monodon andand
mostmost MetapenaeusMetapenaeus spp. can grow in almost freshwater.spp. can grow in almost freshwater. PenaeusPenaeus
merguiensismerguiensis andand P. indicusP. indicus require more saline water, above 10require more saline water, above 10
ppt. Piyakarnchana, et. al. (1975) reported that optimal growthppt. Piyakarnchana, et. al. (1975) reported that optimal growth
ofof P. merguiensisP. merguiensis was obtained at 27 ppt but that growth waswas obtained at 27 ppt but that growth was
good within the range from 20 to 30 ppt.good within the range from 20 to 30 ppt.
Temperature:Temperature:

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3434
Problems of culture in low salinity areas :Problems of culture in low salinity areas :
Tiger shrimp (Tiger shrimp (P. monodonP. monodon) are able to survive and grow) are able to survive and grow
in a wide range of salinity from 2 to 45 ppt. Therefore shrimpin a wide range of salinity from 2 to 45 ppt. Therefore shrimp
farmers can expand their farms extensively in differentfarmers can expand their farms extensively in different
area/environment. However, extremely high or low salinityarea/environment. However, extremely high or low salinity
always causes more problems than the suitable salinities,always causes more problems than the suitable salinities,
which range from 15 to 25 ppt.which range from 15 to 25 ppt.
Culture in extremely high salinities over 30 ppt mayCulture in extremely high salinities over 30 ppt may
cause disease problems, particularly white spot or yellowcause disease problems, particularly white spot or yellow
head virus and luminescent bacteria. Therefore, more shrimphead virus and luminescent bacteria. Therefore, more shrimp
farmers keep moving toward brackish water or freshwaterfarmers keep moving toward brackish water or freshwater
areas.areas.
In 1995, the problems and solutions forIn 1995, the problems and solutions for P. monodonP. monodon
culture in freshwater areas were summarized. Due to theculture in freshwater areas were summarized. Due to the
increases and changes in knowledge and problems on shrimpincreases and changes in knowledge and problems on shrimp
culture in low salinity, the information was compiled and re-culture in low salinity, the information was compiled and re-
summarized for consideration so that the farmers can findsummarized for consideration so that the farmers can find
the suitable culture method for each environment andthe suitable culture method for each environment and
farming system.farming system.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3535
Dissolved oxygen:Dissolved oxygen:
 Maintenance of adequate levels of dissolved oxygen in the pond waterMaintenance of adequate levels of dissolved oxygen in the pond water
is very important for the shrimp. It was observed that when dissolvedis very important for the shrimp. It was observed that when dissolved
oxygen reaches 3 ppm or below in fishponds, remedial measure isoxygen reaches 3 ppm or below in fishponds, remedial measure is
necessary.necessary.
 Shrimps are quite sensitive to low oxygen levels. With little informationShrimps are quite sensitive to low oxygen levels. With little information
available, we can perhaps state that growth is best at dissolved oxygenavailable, we can perhaps state that growth is best at dissolved oxygen
level above 3 ppm. Shigueno (1975) recorded a die-off in a pond whenlevel above 3 ppm. Shigueno (1975) recorded a die-off in a pond when
oxygen level reached 2.7 ppm during the night. Mortality can beoxygen level reached 2.7 ppm during the night. Mortality can be
reduced in shrimp suffering from a lack of dissolved oxygen if thereduced in shrimp suffering from a lack of dissolved oxygen if the
oxygen level is raised quickly.oxygen level is raised quickly.
 Oxygenation of pond water is provided by the use of aeration devicesOxygenation of pond water is provided by the use of aeration devices
such as paddlewheels where water supply is within easy reach andsuch as paddlewheels where water supply is within easy reach and
control, frequent water exchange should be made particularly duringcontrol, frequent water exchange should be made particularly during
high temperatures. Aeration devices during early mornings would helphigh temperatures. Aeration devices during early mornings would help
prevent low oxygen levels that have occurred at night timeprevent low oxygen levels that have occurred at night time..

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3636
Water pH:Water pH:
 Another important aspect in shrimp culture is theAnother important aspect in shrimp culture is the
water pH. Low water pH affect the shrimp directly.water pH. Low water pH affect the shrimp directly.
Wickins (1976) found that even thoughWickins (1976) found that even though P. monodonP. monodon
grow without suffering mortalities with water pH ofgrow without suffering mortalities with water pH of
6.46.4 in the presence of inorganic carbon, growth wasin the presence of inorganic carbon, growth was
reduced to 60 percent.reduced to 60 percent.
 In water with pH ofIn water with pH of 6.46.4 and less than 10 to 12 mg/land less than 10 to 12 mg/l
of inorganic carbon,of inorganic carbon, P. merguiensisP. merguiensis andand P. aztecusP. aztecus
exhibited greatly reduced growth and lowerexhibited greatly reduced growth and lower
survival. When pH fell belowsurvival. When pH fell below 5.05.0, heavy mortalities, heavy mortalities
occurred.occurred.
 A fall in pH have indirect effect, for instance,A fall in pH have indirect effect, for instance,
resistance of the shrimp to pathogens might beresistance of the shrimp to pathogens might be
reduced. Desirable pH is above 7 toreduced. Desirable pH is above 7 to 8.58.5..

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3737
Different colour of water in shrimpDifferent colour of water in shrimp
culture pondculture pond
Ideal green coloured water after
fertilization
Clear water with benthic algae at bottom
Clear water with floating benthic
algae

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3838
Nitrogen compounds:Nitrogen compounds:
 Wickins (1976) discussed the three forms of nitrogen compounds andWickins (1976) discussed the three forms of nitrogen compounds and
the effects of sub-lethal levels on shrimp growth. Two tests with nitratethe effects of sub-lethal levels on shrimp growth. Two tests with nitrate
showed that the growth ofshowed that the growth of P. monodonP. monodon was not affected by awas not affected by a
concentration of 200 mg/l NO3 after five weeks of exposure. In a testconcentration of 200 mg/l NO3 after five weeks of exposure. In a test
withwith P. indicusP. indicus, growth was reduced by nearly 50 percent over a period, growth was reduced by nearly 50 percent over a period
of 34 days where nitrate concentration was 6.4 mg/l NO2.of 34 days where nitrate concentration was 6.4 mg/l NO2.
 For ammonia, chronic toxicity test with five species of penaeid shrimps,For ammonia, chronic toxicity test with five species of penaeid shrimps,
P. japonicus,P. japonicus, P. occidentalis,P. occidentalis, P. schmitti,P. schmitti, P. semisulcatusP. semisulcatus andand P.P.
setiferussetiferus, showed that a mean concentration of 0.45 mg/l NH3 reduced, showed that a mean concentration of 0.45 mg/l NH3 reduced
growth by 50 percent of the control. Wickins estimated that agrowth by 50 percent of the control. Wickins estimated that a
“maximum acceptable level” at which growth would be reduced by only“maximum acceptable level” at which growth would be reduced by only
1 to 2 percent is 0.10 mg/l NH3.1 to 2 percent is 0.10 mg/l NH3.
 There are three forms of nitrogen namely; nitrate, nitrite and ammonia.There are three forms of nitrogen namely; nitrate, nitrite and ammonia.
The concentration range of these nitrogen compounds which can beThe concentration range of these nitrogen compounds which can be
tolerated bytolerated by P. monodonP. monodon are:are:
1.1. Un-ionized ammonia (NH3)- 0.0–1.0 mg/lUn-ionized ammonia (NH3)- 0.0–1.0 mg/l
2.2. Ionized ammonia (NH4+)- 0.0–0.5 mg/lIonized ammonia (NH4+)- 0.0–0.5 mg/l
3.3. Nitrite (NO2)- 0.0–6.0 mg/l Nitrate (NO3)- 0.0–200 mg/lNitrite (NO2)- 0.0–6.0 mg/l Nitrate (NO3)- 0.0–200 mg/l

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 3939
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S):Hydrogen sulfide (H2S):
 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the pond is the result ofHydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the pond is the result of
the chemical reduction of organic matter whichthe chemical reduction of organic matter which
accumulate on or in the pond bottom. This isaccumulate on or in the pond bottom. This is
characterized by the presence of black color of the soilcharacterized by the presence of black color of the soil
and a rotten odor is emitted. Shigueno (1975)and a rotten odor is emitted. Shigueno (1975)
observed thatobserved that P. japonicusP. japonicus lost equilibrium whenlost equilibrium when
exposed to a level of 0.1 to 2.0 ppm hydrogen sulfideexposed to a level of 0.1 to 2.0 ppm hydrogen sulfide
in water. The shrimp died instantly at a concentrationin water. The shrimp died instantly at a concentration
of 4 ppm.of 4 ppm.
 The accumulation of H2S could be avoided byThe accumulation of H2S could be avoided by
periodic drying of the pond bottom and cultivation ofperiodic drying of the pond bottom and cultivation of
the pond soil to expose the same under the sun untilthe pond soil to expose the same under the sun until
it hardens and cracks to dryness.it hardens and cracks to dryness.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4040
Pond bottom soilPond bottom soil
Sludge on pond bottom
(indicated by arrow)
Arrow showing the thick layer of black soil /
sludge on top soil layer of the pond bottom.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4141
Sludge removal
Manual removal of sludge Mechanical sludge removal
using bulldozers

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4242
Ploughing in dry soil
Dry soil ploughing except in trenches –
West Godavari district
Ploughing on dry soil using tractor

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4343
Ploughing in wet soil
Ploughing on wet soil using
tiller
Ploughing on dry soil and subsequent
wetting of bottom

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4444
Calcium/Alkalinity:Calcium/Alkalinity:
 The calcium content in water is important for moultingThe calcium content in water is important for moulting
and growth of the prawn. After the prawn has shed itsand growth of the prawn. After the prawn has shed its
cuticle, calcium is required to replace the lost calcium incuticle, calcium is required to replace the lost calcium in
the cast cuticle and to increase the rate of carapacethe cast cuticle and to increase the rate of carapace
calcification. Calcium deficiency in water will interruptcalcification. Calcium deficiency in water will interrupt
these processes resulting in incomplete moulting andthese processes resulting in incomplete moulting and
heavy mortality.heavy mortality.
 No safe calcium level has been recommended forNo safe calcium level has been recommended for P.P.
monodonmonodon culture. This is because in normal brackishculture. This is because in normal brackish
water, the calcium content is high and sufficient.water, the calcium content is high and sufficient.
 High mortality and deformation of the rostrums andHigh mortality and deformation of the rostrums and
periopods ofperiopods of P. monodonP. monodon were observed in ponds whichwere observed in ponds which
had alkalinities less than 50 ppm CaC03. Subsequenthad alkalinities less than 50 ppm CaC03. Subsequent
liming of some of the low alkalinity ponds raised theliming of some of the low alkalinity ponds raised the
alkalinity to above 95 ppm CaC03 and the prawnsalkalinity to above 95 ppm CaC03 and the prawns
resumed normal growth and no deformities wereresumed normal growth and no deformities were
observed. However, for those ponds which were notobserved. However, for those ponds which were not
limed, there was 100% mortality.limed, there was 100% mortality.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4545
Contd…Contd…
 The pH of the pond water was about 7 beforeThe pH of the pond water was about 7 before
liming and raised to pH 8 after liming. Dissolvedliming and raised to pH 8 after liming. Dissolved
oxygen was 7.4 -oxygen was 7.4 - 8.28.2 mg/l and salinity was 24 - 27mg/l and salinity was 24 - 27
ppt. The ponds were constructed on acid sulfateppt. The ponds were constructed on acid sulfate
soil. The high mortality and deformation ofsoil. The high mortality and deformation of
prawns in this case are probably caused by theprawns in this case are probably caused by the
calcium deficiency in the water. Most probablycalcium deficiency in the water. Most probably
these problems are typical of ponds built on acidthese problems are typical of ponds built on acid
sulfate soils and especially for those farms whichsulfate soils and especially for those farms which
have poor water management.have poor water management.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4646
Heavy Metals, Pesticides and HydrocarbonsHeavy Metals, Pesticides and Hydrocarbons::
 Although heavy metals are toxic to organisms, the study of the acute andAlthough heavy metals are toxic to organisms, the study of the acute and
chronic effects of heavy metals onchronic effects of heavy metals on P. monodonP. monodon is scarce. Chen (1985)is scarce. Chen (1985)
recommended the safe levels of some heavy metals, for example, 0.0025recommended the safe levels of some heavy metals, for example, 0.0025
ppm Hg, 0.1 ppm Cu, 0.15 ppm Cd and 0.25 ppm Zn for optimal growthppm Hg, 0.1 ppm Cu, 0.15 ppm Cd and 0.25 ppm Zn for optimal growth
ofof P. monodonP. monodon. No information on the toxicity of other heavy metals on. No information on the toxicity of other heavy metals on
the prawn is available.the prawn is available.
 For pesticides in water, the following safe levels were suggested for theFor pesticides in water, the following safe levels were suggested for the
prawn: 0.0004 ppb parathion, 0.001 ppb malathion, 0.008 ppbprawn: 0.0004 ppb parathion, 0.001 ppb malathion, 0.008 ppb
rotenone, 0.01 ppb Azodrin, 0.01 ppb Endosulfan, 0.033 ppb Saturn,rotenone, 0.01 ppb Azodrin, 0.01 ppb Endosulfan, 0.033 ppb Saturn,
0.01 ppb Paraquat and 1 ppb Butachlor.0.01 ppb Paraquat and 1 ppb Butachlor.
 A significant level of petroleum was detected in the Malaysian coastalA significant level of petroleum was detected in the Malaysian coastal
waters; 30 -140 ppb in port Dickson, Pahang and Sarawak waters. Thewaters; 30 -140 ppb in port Dickson, Pahang and Sarawak waters. The
effect of this level of hydrocarbon on the growth ofeffect of this level of hydrocarbon on the growth of P. monodonP. monodon isis
unknown. Malaysian coastal waters are vulnernable to oil pollutionunknown. Malaysian coastal waters are vulnernable to oil pollution
because of the heavy traffic of oil tankers passing through its waters. Inbecause of the heavy traffic of oil tankers passing through its waters. In
case of oil spill, dispersants will be used to clean up the oil residues incase of oil spill, dispersants will be used to clean up the oil residues in
water. Some of the dispersants are more toxic to organisms than the oilwater. Some of the dispersants are more toxic to organisms than the oil
itself.itself.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4747
Acid Sulphate Soils:Acid Sulphate Soils:
 One of the constraints to coastal aquacultureOne of the constraints to coastal aquaculture
development in Malaysia is the problem of aciddevelopment in Malaysia is the problem of acid
sulphate soils. Many problems are encounteredsulphate soils. Many problems are encountered
by prawn farmers who construct their ponds inby prawn farmers who construct their ponds in
the acid sulphate soil areas. In general, thethe acid sulphate soil areas. In general, the
problems are :problems are :
1.1. The leaching out of the acid and iron from theThe leaching out of the acid and iron from the
bottom soil into pond water, and;bottom soil into pond water, and;
2.2. The amount of acidic water and iron entry into theThe amount of acidic water and iron entry into the
pond from the dikes and the surroundingpond from the dikes and the surrounding
environment.environment.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4848
1. Pond preparation:1. Pond preparation:

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 4949
Improve or control acid sulphate soils:Improve or control acid sulphate soils:
One method of improving pond with acid sulphateOne method of improving pond with acid sulphate
soils with pH less than seven is the repeated filling upsoils with pH less than seven is the repeated filling up
and draining out of water in the pond. Anotherand draining out of water in the pond. Another
method is by the use of lime. For soils with pH 5,method is by the use of lime. For soils with pH 5,
treatment with 3 tons per ha of agricultural lime hastreatment with 3 tons per ha of agricultural lime has
been effective. The lime can be worked into the soil bybeen effective. The lime can be worked into the soil by
the use of hand-pulled harrow or a hand tractorthe use of hand-pulled harrow or a hand tractor..
 Eradication of pests and predators:Eradication of pests and predators:
Prior to stocking all unwanted pests and predatorsPrior to stocking all unwanted pests and predators
have to be eradicated. The poison used is fromhave to be eradicated. The poison used is from
organic pesticide such as saponin or rotenone at aorganic pesticide such as saponin or rotenone at a
rate of 10 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively. Flushing ofrate of 10 ppm and 4 ppm, respectively. Flushing of
the pond after treatment is undertaken to fully cleanthe pond after treatment is undertaken to fully clean
up the pond of undesirable organisms. This couldup the pond of undesirable organisms. This could
only be effective if the gates are properly screened.only be effective if the gates are properly screened.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 5151
Pond fertilization:Pond fertilization:
 For better growth of algae, the pond is fertilized with chickenFor better growth of algae, the pond is fertilized with chicken
dung or other manure. This is applied to the dry pond bottomdung or other manure. This is applied to the dry pond bottom
at the rate of 350 kg/ha. The chicken manure should be driedat the rate of 350 kg/ha. The chicken manure should be dried
and not treated with insecticide. If no manure is available,and not treated with insecticide. If no manure is available,
inorganic fertilizer can be used; one or two 50 kg bags of 18–inorganic fertilizer can be used; one or two 50 kg bags of 18–
46–0 (NPK) or two or three 50 kg bags of 16–20–0 per ha.46–0 (NPK) or two or three 50 kg bags of 16–20–0 per ha.
Pond watering:Pond watering:
 Immediately after fertilization, 3–5 cm of water is let into theImmediately after fertilization, 3–5 cm of water is let into the
pond. After one week, the same amount of fertilizer is appliedpond. After one week, the same amount of fertilizer is applied
and the water level is raised to 10 to 15 cm. Fertilization isand the water level is raised to 10 to 15 cm. Fertilization is
repeated after the second week and the water level is raisedrepeated after the second week and the water level is raised
to 20 to 25 cm. Additional water is added to make up forto 20 to 25 cm. Additional water is added to make up for
losses by evaporation.losses by evaporation.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 5252
Pond watering & filtrationPond watering & filtration
Clean water pumped from the reservoir
pond
Water filtration using single bag filter
Water filtration by twin bag filter

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 5656
2. Pond stocking:2. Pond stocking:
The practices for stocking are as follows:The practices for stocking are as follows:
I. Time and method of stocking:I. Time and method of stocking:
The best time for stocking is during the colder parts of the day, in theThe best time for stocking is during the colder parts of the day, in the
morning or early evening. Before the seeds are released, it is advisable thatmorning or early evening. Before the seeds are released, it is advisable that
the temperature and salinity of the water in the container and the pond waterthe temperature and salinity of the water in the container and the pond water
where they will be stocked be almost the same. This is done by floating thewhere they will be stocked be almost the same. This is done by floating the
plastic bag or container on the pond water for at least 30 minutes. After theplastic bag or container on the pond water for at least 30 minutes. After the
conditions in the bag and that of the pond are almost the same, the bag isconditions in the bag and that of the pond are almost the same, the bag is
opened and lower into the water. The seeds are allowed to swim out until allopened and lower into the water. The seeds are allowed to swim out until all
seeds are out of the bag.seeds are out of the bag.
II. Stocking rate:II. Stocking rate:
The stocking capacity of a pond depends on the farmer's managementThe stocking capacity of a pond depends on the farmer's management
capability, type of management, cost of inputs and marketing strategy. Acapability, type of management, cost of inputs and marketing strategy. A
farmer has to decide what size of shrimp he wants to harvest and estimatefarmer has to decide what size of shrimp he wants to harvest and estimate
how many kilogram per hectare he can produce per crop. Based on type ofhow many kilogram per hectare he can produce per crop. Based on type of
management, the stocking rates are as follows: traditional method, less thanmanagement, the stocking rates are as follows: traditional method, less than
2.0/sq m; semi-intensive, 2–4/sq m; and for intensive, more than 10/sq m for2.0/sq m; semi-intensive, 2–4/sq m; and for intensive, more than 10/sq m for P.P.
monodonmonodon. In other countries like the Philippines, a stocking density of 20. In other countries like the Philippines, a stocking density of 20
000/ha is used by some farmers.000/ha is used by some farmers.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 5858
3. Grow-out culture practices :3. Grow-out culture practices :
The success in production depends on several cultureThe success in production depends on several culture
practices. These include proper water management, correctpractices. These include proper water management, correct
stocking density and feeding technique. A brief discussionstocking density and feeding technique. A brief discussion
on the practices are as follows :on the practices are as follows :
 Water exchange :Water exchange :
In ponds with static water, accumulation of wasteIn ponds with static water, accumulation of waste
products or depletion of trace metals or organic compoundsproducts or depletion of trace metals or organic compounds
can have a harmful effect on shrimps. Therefore, watercan have a harmful effect on shrimps. Therefore, water
should be changed as often as possible. In traditionalshould be changed as often as possible. In traditional
method of shrimp culture changing water is done every highmethod of shrimp culture changing water is done every high
tide; and the depth of pond water should be maintained attide; and the depth of pond water should be maintained at
30 to 50 cm above the pond bottom or 80 to 100 cm from30 to 50 cm above the pond bottom or 80 to 100 cm from
the peripheral canal bottom.the peripheral canal bottom.
For semi-intensive operations, 20 percent of water isFor semi-intensive operations, 20 percent of water is
changed during high tide or water change is done every 3changed during high tide or water change is done every 3
days with the use of water pump. Pond water is maintaineddays with the use of water pump. Pond water is maintained
at 50 to 75 cm depth.at 50 to 75 cm depth.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6060
Monitoring of stock and water quality:Monitoring of stock and water quality:
Random sample of shrimp is collected with a cast netRandom sample of shrimp is collected with a cast net
every 15 days. The shrimps are measured individually in lengthevery 15 days. The shrimps are measured individually in length
and weight to monitor the growth and determine theand weight to monitor the growth and determine the
appropriate feeding levels.appropriate feeding levels.
Water temperature and salinity are monitored daily, forWater temperature and salinity are monitored daily, for
semi-intensive culture practices. Other water qualitysemi-intensive culture practices. Other water quality
parameters monitored are water dissolved oxygen, totalparameters monitored are water dissolved oxygen, total
organic matter, pH, nitrate and ammonia. Water temperatureorganic matter, pH, nitrate and ammonia. Water temperature
and salinity are measured daily at 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.and salinity are measured daily at 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.
Other parameters are measured every seventh day.Other parameters are measured every seventh day.
 Fertilization:Fertilization:
In semi-intensive culture, additional application ofIn semi-intensive culture, additional application of
fertilizer to support the growth of natural food in the pond isfertilizer to support the growth of natural food in the pond is
carried out. This is about 10 percent of the amount applied incarried out. This is about 10 percent of the amount applied in
the initial pond fertilization. Fertilizer used are urea (47-0-0),the initial pond fertilization. Fertilizer used are urea (47-0-0),
triple superphosphate (0-35-0) and organic fertilizer.triple superphosphate (0-35-0) and organic fertilizer.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6161
Installation of aeration system:Installation of aeration system:
Most common aeration system used in shrimp pond is the paddleMost common aeration system used in shrimp pond is the paddle
wheel. The ideal number of paddle wheel in a hectare of pond is 4 pieceswheel. The ideal number of paddle wheel in a hectare of pond is 4 pieces
of 1 to 1.5 hp each. At the early stage of the cultivation, this is used for 8of 1 to 1.5 hp each. At the early stage of the cultivation, this is used for 8
hours between 11:00 o'clock in the evening and 6:00 o'clock in thehours between 11:00 o'clock in the evening and 6:00 o'clock in the
morning. However, at near harvest this is operated for about 18 hours permorning. However, at near harvest this is operated for about 18 hours per
day between 8:00 o'clock in the evening to 8:00 o'clock in the morning andday between 8:00 o'clock in the evening to 8:00 o'clock in the morning and
at 11:00 o'clock in the morning to 3:00 o'clock in the afternoon. Theat 11:00 o'clock in the morning to 3:00 o'clock in the afternoon. The
aeration system is a must in either the semi-intensive or intensive shrimpaeration system is a must in either the semi-intensive or intensive shrimp
cultivation.cultivation.
 Feeds and feeding:Feeds and feeding:
In the cultivation of shrimp, feeding is necessary in either the semi-In the cultivation of shrimp, feeding is necessary in either the semi-
intensive or intensive shrimp culture. The feeds are given either twice, thrice orintensive or intensive shrimp culture. The feeds are given either twice, thrice or
four times a day. The rate of feeding ranges from 5 to 10 percent of thefour times a day. The rate of feeding ranges from 5 to 10 percent of the
biomass.biomass.
For semi-intensive culture, supplementary feeds are given two weeks orFor semi-intensive culture, supplementary feeds are given two weeks or
after a month when the natural feeds are almost exhausted. These may consistafter a month when the natural feeds are almost exhausted. These may consist
of ground trash fish, mussel meat, shrimp heads and other feed formulationsof ground trash fish, mussel meat, shrimp heads and other feed formulations
available in the market.available in the market.
For intensive shrimp culture, commercial formulated feeds are often used.For intensive shrimp culture, commercial formulated feeds are often used.
Feeds are given immediately on the start of the cultivation.Feeds are given immediately on the start of the cultivation.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6262
Feed and feedingFeed and feeding
Demand feeding using check trays Feed distribution using boat

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6363
SamplingSampling
Cast net sampling for health check up
Healthy shrimp samples

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6565
Sample of feed frequency:Sample of feed frequency:
Feeds estimated per day for the first twoFeeds estimated per day for the first two
months are given twice a day; 40 percentmonths are given twice a day; 40 percent
would be given at 7:00 A.M. and the rest orwould be given at 7:00 A.M. and the rest or
60 percent given at 5:00 P.M.60 percent given at 5:00 P.M.
For the next month, thrice a day, 30For the next month, thrice a day, 30
percent at 7:00 A.M., 30 percent at 10:00percent at 7:00 A.M., 30 percent at 10:00
A.M. and 40 percent of the estimated feedA.M. and 40 percent of the estimated feed
at 5:00 P.M.at 5:00 P.M.
In the last and fourth month, 20 percentIn the last and fourth month, 20 percent
at 10:00 A.M., 40 percent at 5:00 P.M. andat 10:00 A.M., 40 percent at 5:00 P.M. and
the rest of the feeds at 10:00 P.M.the rest of the feeds at 10:00 P.M.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6666
Table-1. Composition of formulated feed for P. monodon:Table-1. Composition of formulated feed for P. monodon:
AvgAvg
body wtbody wt
ofof
shrimpshrimp
Feed typeFeed type Shape ofShape of
feedfeed
MoistureMoisture
(%)(%)
CrudeCrude
fibrefibre
(%)(%)
CRUDECRUDE
ASHASH
(%)(%)
CRUDECRUDE
LIPIDLIPID
(%)(%)
CRUDECRUDE
PROTPROT
(%)(%)
PL – 25PL – 25
to 1 gmto 1 gm
STARTERSTARTER CRUMBLECRUMBLE 1313 22 1616 2.82.8 3737
10 gm10 gm GROWERGROWER GRANULEGRANULE 1313 33 1616 2.82.8 3636
50 gm50 gm
HarvestHarvest
FINISHERFINISHER RODSRODS 1313 33 1616 2.82.8 3535

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6767
Nutrition and feeding of tiger prawn, P. monodon: a reviewNutrition and feeding of tiger prawn, P. monodon: a review
study in Thailandstudy in Thailand ::
Feed quality of Tiger prawn, (Feed quality of Tiger prawn, (P. monodon)P. monodon)
has been developed to the optimal nutritional levelhas been developed to the optimal nutritional level
with long water stability. During shrimp feedingwith long water stability. During shrimp feeding
approximately 10% of the diet will be lost to theapproximately 10% of the diet will be lost to the
water and becomes nutrients for bacteria andwater and becomes nutrients for bacteria and
microalgae. With optimal feed management,microalgae. With optimal feed management,
shrimp and other organisms will live well in anshrimp and other organisms will live well in an
equilibrium environment.equilibrium environment.
Over-feeding will lead to nutrient load andOver-feeding will lead to nutrient load and
eutrophication, with severe consequences for theeutrophication, with severe consequences for the
pond water which may become difficult to managepond water which may become difficult to manage
and may necessitate the early harvesting ofand may necessitate the early harvesting of
shrimp.shrimp.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 6868
Contd….Contd….
Shrimp require energy with primary on proteinShrimp require energy with primary on protein
(~ 40%), fat (~7-10%) and carbohydrate (~30%).(~ 40%), fat (~7-10%) and carbohydrate (~30%).
Changes in the amount of protein, fat or carbohydrateChanges in the amount of protein, fat or carbohydrate
energy will affect their ratios in the diet.energy will affect their ratios in the diet.
To ensure better growth and survival of shrimp,To ensure better growth and survival of shrimp,
minor nutritional components, such as n-3 fatty acidsminor nutritional components, such as n-3 fatty acids
(EPA and DHA), astaxanthin and/or other vitamin A(EPA and DHA), astaxanthin and/or other vitamin A
derivatives, ascorbic acids and some minerals arederivatives, ascorbic acids and some minerals are
needed.needed.
At present, probiotics have been introduced forAt present, probiotics have been introduced for
shrimp culture in Thailand. Probiotics added to theshrimp culture in Thailand. Probiotics added to the
feed provide good results in shrimp health andfeed provide good results in shrimp health and
production. Probiotics will be used in shrimp culture toproduction. Probiotics will be used in shrimp culture to
replace the use of antibiotics and will lead the shrimpreplace the use of antibiotics and will lead the shrimp
culture industry to future organic farming.culture industry to future organic farming.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7070
Contd. . .Contd. . .
In processing plants, shrimp are properly cleaned andIn processing plants, shrimp are properly cleaned and
sorted according to export standard sizes. Depending onsorted according to export standard sizes. Depending on
market requirement, shrimp are processed in severalmarket requirement, shrimp are processed in several
categories before quick freezing at -10 °C and storedcategories before quick freezing at -10 °C and stored
below -20 °C for further export by ship or air cargo. Due tobelow -20 °C for further export by ship or air cargo. Due to
an increasing demand and higher profit margin, manyan increasing demand and higher profit margin, many
processing plants increasingly operate value-addedprocessing plants increasingly operate value-added
product lines.product lines.
 Production costsProduction costs ::
Production costs always vary depending on the site,Production costs always vary depending on the site,
season, scale of production, water management systemseason, scale of production, water management system
(such as water exchange versus closed system), irregular(such as water exchange versus closed system), irregular
production yield affected by culture problems, outbreak ofproduction yield affected by culture problems, outbreak of
diseases, etc. Operational costs for seed productiondiseases, etc. Operational costs for seed production
regionally average at about US$ 2.5/1000 PL.regionally average at about US$ 2.5/1000 PL.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7171
Production costs for adult shrimp are summarized asProduction costs for adult shrimp are summarized as
follows (US $ /kg):follows (US $ /kg):
PARAMETERPARAMETER EXTENSIVEEXTENSIVE SEMI-SEMI-
INTENSIVEINTENSIVE
INTENSIVEINTENSIVE
SEEDSEED 0.530.53 0.580.58 0.590.59
FEEDFEED ---------- 1.411.41 2.422.42
LABOURLABOUR 0.850.85 0.200.20 0.190.19
ELECTRICITY & FUELELECTRICITY & FUEL 0.210.21 0.360.36 0.330.33
CHEMICAL , MATERIALS &CHEMICAL , MATERIALS &
SUPPLIESSUPPLIES
0.160.16 0.180.18 0.260.26
OVERHEADOVERHEAD ---------- 0.130.13 0.370.37
DEPRECIATIONDEPRECIATION 0.200.20 0.660.66 0.520.52
TOTAL:TOTAL: 1.951.95 3.523.52 4.284.28

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7272
Diseases and control measures:Diseases and control measures:
The major disease problems are included in the Table below:The major disease problems are included in the Table below:
There are no chemicals or drugs available to treat the viralThere are no chemicals or drugs available to treat the viral
infections listed but good management of pond, water, feed andinfections listed but good management of pond, water, feed and
health status of stock inputs can reduce their virulence.health status of stock inputs can reduce their virulence.
Outbreaks of the most serious virus (WSD) always occurOutbreaks of the most serious virus (WSD) always occur
after dramatic changes in water parameters such as temperature,after dramatic changes in water parameters such as temperature,
salinity caused by heavy rain, DO2, hardness, and the stress tosalinity caused by heavy rain, DO2, hardness, and the stress to
shrimp caused by deterioration in water quality and pond bottomshrimp caused by deterioration in water quality and pond bottom
environment.environment.
Pond preparation by proper bottom cleaning or regularPond preparation by proper bottom cleaning or regular
scraping of the fouled layer is also a key factor for prevention ofscraping of the fouled layer is also a key factor for prevention of
the shrimp stress caused by built up waste and toxic gases, andthe shrimp stress caused by built up waste and toxic gases, and
also for the elimination of virus carriers, particularly crustaceans.also for the elimination of virus carriers, particularly crustaceans.
For confirmation, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testFor confirmation, the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) test
for white spot disease or other viruses is widely used forfor white spot disease or other viruses is widely used for
screening of brood stock before spawning, nauplii before larvalscreening of brood stock before spawning, nauplii before larval
rearing, late PL before pond stocking, and shrimp in ponds forrearing, late PL before pond stocking, and shrimp in ponds for
regular monitoring.regular monitoring.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7373
Some cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used inSome cases antibiotics and other pharmaceuticals have been used in
treatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAOtreatment but their inclusion in this table does not imply an FAO
recommendationrecommendation
DISEASEDISEASE AGENTAGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESYPTOME MEASURESMEASURES
WHITEWHITE
SPOTSPOT
(WSD)(WSD)
otherwiseotherwise
known asknown as
WBSV,WBSV,
WSSVWSSV
Part of thePart of the
white spotwhite spot
syndromesyndrome
ss
baculovirubaculoviru
s complexs complex
VIRUSVIRUS Acutely infectedAcutely infected
shrimp show rapidshrimp show rapid
reduction in foodreduction in food
consumption ;consumption ;
lethargy; high mortalitylethargy; high mortality
rates with cumulativerates with cumulative
mortalities reachingmortalities reaching
100% with in 3 to 10100% with in 3 to 10
days of the onset ofdays of the onset of
clinical signs; acutelyclinical signs; acutely
infected shrimp ofteninfected shrimp often
have loose cuticle withhave loose cuticle with
white spots of 0.5 – 2white spots of 0.5 – 2
mm in dia. That aremm in dia. That are
most apparent on themost apparent on the
inside surface of theinside surface of the
carapace.carapace.
Screening of broodScreening of brood
stock , naupli, pl, &stock , naupli, pl, &
grow out stages;grow out stages;
avoiding shrimp stress;avoiding shrimp stress;
avoid use of freshavoid use of fresh
feeds, particularlyfeeds, particularly
crustaceans;crustaceans;
minimizing waterminimizing water
exchange to preventexchange to prevent
virus carriers enteringvirus carriers entering
the pond; treatingthe pond; treating
infected ponds orinfected ponds or
hatcheries with 30 ppmhatcheries with 30 ppm
chlorine to kill infectedchlorine to kill infected
shrimp & carriers;shrimp & carriers;
disinfect associateddisinfect associated
equipmentequipment

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7474
Diseases of shrimpDiseases of shrimp
Diseased liverDiseased liver

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7575
Yellow headYellow head
Disease (YHD)Disease (YHD)
also calledalso called
Yellow-HeadYellow-Head
Virus (YHV),Virus (YHV),
Yellow HeadYellow Head
Baculo VirusBaculo Virus
(YHBV), Yellow(YHBV), Yellow
Head DiseaseHead Disease
Baculo VirusBaculo Virus
(YHDVB)(YHDVB)
NOT YETNOT YET
DESCRIBEDESCRIBE
DD
VIRUSVIRUS Acute epizootics with highAcute epizootics with high
cumulative mortalities thatcumulative mortalities that
may reach 100% within 3-may reach 100% within 3-
5 days after appearance5 days after appearance
of clinical signs; infectionof clinical signs; infection
is horizontally transmitted;is horizontally transmitted;
PL 20-25 & on growingPL 20-25 & on growing
juveniles through to subjuveniles through to sub
adults are highlyadults are highly
susceptible ; initially,susceptible ; initially,
feeding increases,feeding increases,
followed by reducedfollowed by reduced
feeding in latter stages offeeding in latter stages of
their disease; pale body;their disease; pale body;
yellow swollenyellow swollen
cephalothoraxes &cephalothoraxes &
hepatopancreas; whitishhepatopancreas; whitish
-yellowish –brownish gills ;-yellowish –brownish gills ;
etcetc
Screening of broodScreening of brood
stock before hatcherystock before hatchery
operation & PL beforeoperation & PL before
stocking in pond;stocking in pond;
avoiding rapidavoiding rapid
changes in water pH,changes in water pH,
alkalinity, & DO ;alkalinity, & DO ;
avoiding fresh aquaticavoiding fresh aquatic
feeds; proper cleaningfeeds; proper cleaning
of pond bottom beforeof pond bottom before
stocking; infectedstocking; infected
ponds &hatcheriesponds &hatcheries
must be similar tomust be similar to
WSVWSV

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7676
Yellow Head Disease(YHD)Yellow Head Disease(YHD)

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7777
DISEASEDISEASE AGENTAGENT TYPETYPE SYPTOMESSYPTOMES MEASURESMEASURES
BaculovirulBaculovirul
Mid gutMid gut
GlandGland
NecrosisNecrosis
(BMN) Also(BMN) Also
called Midcalled Mid
gut & Cloudygut & Cloudy
Disease,Disease,
White TurbidWhite Turbid
LiverLiver
disease ,disease ,
and Whiteand White
TurbidityTurbidity
DiseaseDisease
BaculovirusBaculovirus VIRUSVIRUS
Generally infectsGenerally infects
larvae & early PLlarvae & early PL
stages in which it canstages in which it can
cause highcause high
mortalities; apparentmortalities; apparent
white turbidity of thewhite turbidity of the
hepatopancreashepatopancreas
caused by necrosiscaused by necrosis
of tubule epitheliumof tubule epithelium
& possibly also the& possibly also the
mucosal epithelium;mucosal epithelium;
larvae affected butlarvae affected but
later stages (latelater stages (late
postlarvae) tend topostlarvae) tend to
show resistance;show resistance;
Wash fertile eggsWash fertile eggs
through a soft gauzethrough a soft gauze
by running cleanby running clean
seawater to removeseawater to remove
excrement or faecesexcrement or faeces
of spawner; ifof spawner; if
infected, cultureinfected, culture
facility must befacility must be
disinfected to avoiddisinfected to avoid
re-introduction of virusre-introduction of virus
..

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7878
White Turbidity DiseaseWhite Turbidity Disease

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 7979
Continue. . .Continue. . .
BaculoviralBaculoviral
Midgut GlandMidgut Gland
Necrosis (BMN),Necrosis (BMN),
known as midknown as mid
gut gland cloudygut gland cloudy
disease, whitedisease, white
turbid liverturbid liver
disease, anddisease, and
white turbiditywhite turbidity
diseasedisease
-- --
source of infectionsource of infection
documented as wild-caughtdocumented as wild-caught
female spawners; larvae floatfemale spawners; larvae float
inactively on the surface &inactively on the surface &
exhibit a white mid gut lineexhibit a white mid gut line
through the abdomen .through the abdomen .
--
NuclearNuclear
PolyhedrosisPolyhedrosis
BaculovirosesBaculoviroses
Also known asAlso known as
MonodonMonodon
baculovirusbaculovirus
disease (MBV)disease (MBV)
BaculoviruBaculoviru
ss
virusvirus Lethargy, anorexia, dark colouredLethargy, anorexia, dark coloured
shrimp; reduced feeding & growthshrimp; reduced feeding & growth
rates; often increased surface & gillrates; often increased surface & gill
fouling with various epibiotic &fouling with various epibiotic &
epicommensal organisms; severelyepicommensal organisms; severely
affected larvae & postlarvae mayaffected larvae & postlarvae may
exhibit a white mid gut line throughexhibit a white mid gut line through
the abdomen; acute MBV causes loss ofthe abdomen; acute MBV causes loss of
hepatopancreatic tubule & mid guthepatopancreatic tubule & mid gut
epithelia &, consequently, dysfunctionepithelia &, consequently, dysfunction
of these organs, often followed byof these organs, often followed by
secondary bacterial infections; linkedsecondary bacterial infections; linked
with high mortalities (>90%) in latewith high mortalities (>90%) in late
postlarvae & juvenile shrimp in manypostlarvae & juvenile shrimp in many
culture facilities; usually juvenile &culture facilities; usually juvenile &
adult P. monodon are more resistant toadult P. monodon are more resistant to
MBV than larval shrimp; MBV mayMBV than larval shrimp; MBV may
predispose infected shrimp topredispose infected shrimp to
infections by other pathogens;infections by other pathogens;
Reduce stocking density,Reduce stocking density,
use of chemicals &use of chemicals &
environmentally inducedenvironmentally induced
stress; preventstress; prevent
contamination ofcontamination of
fertilized eggs fromfertilized eggs from
spawner faeces byspawner faeces by
washing in formalin orwashing in formalin or
iodophore treatediodophore treated
seawater; if infected,seawater; if infected,
culture facility must beculture facility must be
disinfected & stockdisinfected & stock
should be removed &should be removed &
sterilized.sterilized.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8080
 Disease is the result of interactions amongstDisease is the result of interactions amongst
pathogens, the environment and hostpathogens, the environment and host
organisms. To investigate the effect of stressorganisms. To investigate the effect of stress
onon P. monodonP. monodon, juvenile shrimp were given, juvenile shrimp were given
short term exposure to hypoxic, hyperthermicshort term exposure to hypoxic, hyperthermic
and osmotic stress twice over a one weekand osmotic stress twice over a one week
period and estimates of total haemocyteperiod and estimates of total haemocyte
count (THC), heat shock protein (HSP) 70count (THC), heat shock protein (HSP) 70
expression and load of gill associated virusexpression and load of gill associated virus
(GAV) were determined at different time(GAV) were determined at different time
points.points.
 While no significant differences wereWhile no significant differences were
observed in survival and THC betweenobserved in survival and THC between
stressed and control shrimp (stressed and control shrimp (PP > 0.05), HSP > 0.05), HSP
70 expression and GAV load changed70 expression and GAV load changed
significantly (significantly (PP < 0.05). HSP 70 expression < 0.05). HSP 70 expression
was higher in the hyperthermic treatmentwas higher in the hyperthermic treatment
than in other treatments (than in other treatments (PP < 0.05). < 0.05).

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8181
Disease of shrimpDisease of shrimp
Shrimp carapace with white spots Histological section showing the intramuscular
white spot virus inclusion bodies in infected
cells of the cuticular region

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8282
Disease of shrimpDisease of shrimp
Shrimps with loose shell syndrome
Histological section showing the chronic
inflammatory lesions in hepatopancreas
indicative of bacterial infection

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8383
Pond managementPond management
Removal of dead shrimp from pond margins

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8484
Harvesting Techniques:Harvesting Techniques:
 Generally, behavioral characteristics of shrimps are takenGenerally, behavioral characteristics of shrimps are taken
into account during harvest. These are:into account during harvest. These are:
a) moving around the pond at night looking for food;a) moving around the pond at night looking for food;
b) attraction to light;b) attraction to light;
c) stimulated by water current;c) stimulated by water current;
d) often gathered near sluice gate; andd) often gathered near sluice gate; and
e) bigger shrimps swim out of the pond with the water whene) bigger shrimps swim out of the pond with the water when
water is discharged.water is discharged.
With these tendencies, farmers can devise equipmentWith these tendencies, farmers can devise equipment
for harvest of stock. Some of the harvesting gears andfor harvest of stock. Some of the harvesting gears and
methods used are discussed below:methods used are discussed below:
A. Barrier trap:A. Barrier trap:
This type (see Figure) is set around the edge of a pondThis type (see Figure) is set around the edge of a pond
about 2–5 meters from the gate. This is used at night. Noabout 2–5 meters from the gate. This is used at night. No
bait is needed. A small kerosene lamp is placed on top of thebait is needed. A small kerosene lamp is placed on top of the
trap to attract the shrimp .trap to attract the shrimp .

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8585
Figure -1. Trap for use in a shrimp pond:Figure -1. Trap for use in a shrimp pond:

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8686
Nets:Nets:
Cast net, lift net and seine net can be used to harvest shrimpsCast net, lift net and seine net can be used to harvest shrimps
partially. Bait or food are also set for effective harvest.partially. Bait or food are also set for effective harvest.
 Electric shrimp catching:Electric shrimp catching:
The gear is composed of an accumulator and twoThe gear is composed of an accumulator and two
bamboo poles. One of the poles is equipped with a metalbamboo poles. One of the poles is equipped with a metal
tip and the other has a steel ring with a net attached.tip and the other has a steel ring with a net attached.
The metal tip is connected by wire to the anode of theThe metal tip is connected by wire to the anode of the
accumulator and the steel ring to the cathode.accumulator and the steel ring to the cathode.
The accumulator is carried in a backpack as on aThe accumulator is carried in a backpack as on a
small raft and the operator holds one pole in each hand assmall raft and the operator holds one pole in each hand as
he wades through the pond.he wades through the pond.
When the gear is switched on, an electric field isWhen the gear is switched on, an electric field is
formed between the two poles, on receiving an electricformed between the two poles, on receiving an electric
stimulation, the shrimp jump out of the water and arestimulation, the shrimp jump out of the water and are
caught in the net.caught in the net.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8787
SHRIMP HARVESTING SYSTEM IN THIALAND:SHRIMP HARVESTING SYSTEM IN THIALAND:
In ThailandIn Thailand,, artificial sluice gates are temporarilyartificial sluice gates are temporarily
installed inside the pond for the harvesting of manyinstalled inside the pond for the harvesting of many
closed system ponds where a sluice gate for waterclosed system ponds where a sluice gate for water
exchange is not necessary. Shrimp are thenexchange is not necessary. Shrimp are then
trapped in this artificial gate during the pumping outtrapped in this artificial gate during the pumping out
of the water. For the live shrimp market, ponds areof the water. For the live shrimp market, ponds are
partially harvested by cast net in the early morning.partially harvested by cast net in the early morning.
Due to its burrowing habit, a drag net is not practicalDue to its burrowing habit, a drag net is not practical
unless it is installed with electric shock gear tounless it is installed with electric shock gear to
stimulate the shrimp to jump.stimulate the shrimp to jump.
 Bag net:Bag net:
Most species of shrimp can be harvestedMost species of shrimp can be harvested
effectively by using the bag net placed in theeffectively by using the bag net placed in the
sluice gate and catching the shrimps as theysluice gate and catching the shrimps as they
swim out with the outflow of water.swim out with the outflow of water.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8888
Figure - Harvest net with lazy line-arrows water flow:Figure - Harvest net with lazy line-arrows water flow:

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 8989
Global Aquaculture production ofGlobal Aquaculture production of Penaeus monodonPenaeus monodon
(FAO Fishery Statistics )(FAO Fishery Statistics )

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 9090
Total aquaculture production ofTotal aquaculture production of P. monodonP. monodon
increased gradually from 21,000 tonnes in 1981 to 2,00,increased gradually from 21,000 tonnes in 1981 to 2,00,
000 tonnes in 1988; then it sharply increased to nearly000 tonnes in 1988; then it sharply increased to nearly
5,00,000 tonnes with a value of US$ 3.2 billion in 1993.5,00,000 tonnes with a value of US$ 3.2 billion in 1993.
Since then, production has been quite variable, rangingSince then, production has been quite variable, ranging
from a low of 4,80,000 tonnes in 1997 to a high of 6,76,from a low of 4,80,000 tonnes in 1997 to a high of 6,76,
000 tonnes in 2001.000 tonnes in 2001.
The major producers ofThe major producers of P. monodonP. monodon includeinclude
Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, India, the Philippines,Thailand, Viet Nam, Indonesia, India, the Philippines,
Malaysia and Myanmar. Since 2002, production ofMalaysia and Myanmar. Since 2002, production of
Penaeus monodon has been unofficially reported to havePenaeus monodon has been unofficially reported to have
declined, particularly in Thailand and Indonesia, becausedeclined, particularly in Thailand and Indonesia, because
of substitution by Litopenaeus vannamei in many farms.of substitution by Litopenaeus vannamei in many farms.

May 23, 2016May 23, 2016 9191
THANKTHANK YOUYOU

Shrimp Culture: Culture of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon)

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